MOORE'S 



ii 



RURAL HAND BOOKS. 



FOURTH SERIES. 



CONTAINING 



LIEBIG'S FAMILIAR LETTERS ON CHEMISTRY. 

THE DOG AND GUN. 

PERSOZ ON THE CULTURE OF THE VINE. 

THE SKILLFUL HOUSEWIFE. 

MEMOIR ON INDIAN CORN. 



NEW YORK: 
A. 0. MOORE, AGRICULTURAL BOOK PUBLISHER, 

(LATE C. M. SAXTON & CO.) 

No, 140 FULTON STREET. 

1858. 



.H(cT 






FAMILIAR 

LETTERS ON CHEMISTRl' 

AND ITS 

RELATION TO COMMERCE, PHYSIOLOGY, 
AND AGRICULTURE. 



BY JUSTUS LIEBIG, M. D., Ph. D., F. R. S., 

PEOFESSOR OF OftEMlSTRY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF GIESSBM 



EDITED BY 

JOHN GARDNER, M. D., 

MEMBER OF THE CHEMICAL SOCIETY. 



NEW YOBK: 
CM. SAXTON & COMPANY, 

No. 140 FULTOX STREET. 
18 5 7. 



PREFACE. 



The Letters contained in this little Vol- 
ume embrace some of the most important 
points of the science of Chemistry, in their 
application to Natural Philosophy, Physiolo- 
gy, Agriculture, and Commerce. Some of 
them treat of subjects which have already 
been, or will hereafter be, more fully discuss- 
ed in my larger works. They were intended 
to be mere sketches, and were written for the 
especial purpose of exciting the attention of 
governments, and an enlightened public, to 
the necessity of establishing Schools of Chem- 
istry, and of promoting, by every means, the 

study of a science so intimately connected 

1* 



6 PREFACE. 

with the arts, pursuits, and social well-being 
of modern civilized nations. 

For my own part I do not scruple to avow 
the conviction, that ere long, a knowledge of 
the principal truths of Chemistry w^ill be ex- 
pected in every educated man, and that it will 
be as necessary to the Statesman and Pohtical 
Economist, and the Practical Agriculturist, as 
it is already indispensable to the Physician 
and the Manufacturer. 

In Germany, such of these Letters as have 
been already published, have not failed to 
produce some of the results anticipated. New 
professorships have been established in the 
Universities of Gottingen and Wurtzburg, for 
the express purpose of facilitating the applica- 
tion of chemical truths to the practical arts of 
life, and of following up the new line of in- 
vestigation and research — the bearing of 
Chemistry upon Physiology, Medicine, and 
Agriculture, — which may be said to be only 
just begun. 



PREFACE. 



My friend, Dr. Ernest DIefFenbach, one of 
my first pupils, who is well acquainted with 
all the branches of Chemistry, Physics, Nat- 
ural History, and Medicine, suggested to me 
that a collection of these Letters would be 
acceptable to the English public, which has so 
favorably received my former works. 

I readily acquiesced in the publication of 
an English edition, and undertook to write a 
few additional Letters, which should embrace 
some conclusions I have arrived at, in my re- 
cent investigations, in connexion with the ap- 
plication of chemical science to the physiolo- 
gy of plants and agriculture. 

My esteemed friend, Dr. Gardner, has had 
the kindness to revise the manuscript and the 
proof-sheets for publication, for which I can- 
not refrain expressing my best thanks. 

It only remains for me to add a hope, that 
this little offering may serve to make new 
friends to our beautiful and useful science, 



8 PREFACE. 

and be a remembrancer to those old friends 
who have, for many years past, taken a lively 
interest in all my labors. 

JUSTUS LIEBIG. 

GlESSEIiT, JlugUSlf i84d. 



CONTENTS. 



LETTER I. 

PAGE 

The Subject proposed. Materials employed for Chem- 
ical Apparatus : — Glass — Caoutchouc — Cork — 
Platinum. The Balance. The " Elements" of 
the Ancients, represent the forms of matter. La- 
voisier and his successors. Study of the materials 
composing the Earth. Synthetic production of Min- 
erals — Lapis Lazuli. Organic chemistry. - - 13 

LETTER II. 

Changes of Form which every kind of Matter under- 
goes. Conversion of Gases into Liquids and Solids. 
Carbonic Acid — its curious properties in a solid 
state. Condensation of Gases by porous bodies. 
By Spongy Platinum. Importance of this property 
in Nature - - - - - - 21 

LETTER III. 

The Manufacture of Soda from Culinary Salt ; its im- 
portance in the Arts and in Commerce. Glass — 
Soap — Sulphuric Acid. Silver Refining. Bleach- 
ing. Trade in Sulphur - - - - 31 



10 CONTENTS. 

LETTER IV. 

Connexion of Theory with Practice. Employment of 
Magnetism as a moving power — its impracticabil- 
ity. Relation of Coals and Zinc as economic sources 
of Force. Manufacture of Beet-root Sugar — its im- 
policy. Gas for illumination - - - 43 

LETTER V. 

Isomerism, or Identity of composition in bodies with 
different chemical and physical properties. Ckys- 
TALLizATioN. Amorphism. ISOMORPHISM, or sim- 
ilarity of properties in bodies totally different in 
composition - - - - - 65 

^ETTER VI. 
Alliance of Chemistry with Physiology. Di- 
vision of Food into nourishment, and inaterials for 
combustion. Effectsof Atmospheric Oxygen. Bal- 
ance of Carbon and Oxygen - - - 64 

LETTER VII. 

Animal Heat, its laws and influence on the Animal 
Functions. Loss and Supply. Influence of Cli- 
mate. Fuel of Animal Heat. Agency of Oxygen 
in disease. Respiration - - - - 71 

LETTER VIII. 
Aliments. Constituents of the Blood. Fibrine, Al- 
bumen. Inorganic Substances. Isomerism of Fi- 
brine, Albumen, and elements of nutrition. Rela- 
tion of animal and vegetable organisms - - 84 



CONTENTS. 11 

LETTER IX. 

Growth of Animals. Use of Butter and Milk. Met- 
amorphoses of Ti.TSues. Food of Carnivora, and 
of the Horse - - - - - 96 

LETTER X. 

Application of the preceding Facts to Man. Divis- 
ion of human food. Uses of Gelatine - - 106 

LETTER XL 
Circulation of Matter in the Animal and Veg- 
etable Kingdoms. The Ocean. Agriculture. 
Restitution of an Equilibrium in -the Soil. 
Causes of the exhaustion of Land. Virginia. En- 
gland. Relief gained by importation of bones. 
Empirical Farming unsatisfactory. Necessity for 
scientific principles. Influence of the Atmosphere. 
Of Saline and Earthy matters of the soil - - 113 

LETTER XIT. 

Science and Art of Agriculture. Necessity of 
Chemistry. Rationale of agricultural processes. 
Washing for Gold - - - - - 125 

LETTER XIII. 

Illustration or the necessity of Chemistry to 
ADVANCE and PERFECT AGRICULTURE. Manner ia 
which Fallow ameliorates the soil. Uses of Lime. 
Effects of Burning. Of Marl - - - 133 

LETTER XrV. 

Nature and Effects of Manures. Animal bodies 
subject to constant waste. Parts separating — exu- 



12 CONTENTS, 

viae — waste vegetable matters — together contain 
all the elements of the soil and of food. Various 
value of excrements of different animals as manure 142 

LETTER XV. 
Source op the Carbon and Nitrogen of Plants. 
Produce of Carbon in Forests and Meadows sup- 
plied only with mineral aliments prove it to be from 
the atmosphere. Relations between Mineral con- 
stituents, and Carbon and Nitrogen. Effects of the 
Carbonic Acid and Ammonia of Manures. Neces- 
sity of inorganic constituents to the formation of 
aliments, of blood, and therefore of nutrition. Ne- 
cessity of INQUIRIES by Analysis to advance Ag- 
riculture - - - - - - 152 

LETTER XVI. 

Results of the Author's latest Inquiries. Su- 
perlative importance of the phosphates of Lime 
and Alkalies to the cultivatian of the Ceralia. 
Sources of a supply of these Materials - - 173 



LETTERS ON CHEMISTRY. 



LETTER I. 

My dear sir : The influence which the sci 
ence of chemistry exercises upon human indus- 
try, agriculture, and commerce ; upon physiology, 
medicine, and other sciences, is now so interest- 
ing a topic of conversation everywhere, that it 
may be no unacceptable present to you if I trace 
in a few familiar letters some of the relations it 
bears to these various sciences, and exhibit foi 
you its actual effects upon the present social con- 
dition of mankind. 

In speaking of the present state of chemistry, 
its rise and progress, I shall need no apology if, 
as a preliminary step, I call your attention to the 
implements which the chemist employs — the 
means which are indispensable to his labors and 
to his success. 

These consist, generally, of materials furnished 
to us by nature, endowed with many most remark- 

2 



14 LET'IEllS ON CHEMISTRY. 

able properties fitting them for our purposes. If 
one of them is a production of art, yet its adaptation 
to the use of mankind — the qualities which render 
it available to us — must be referred to the same 
source as those derived immediately from nature. 

Cork, platinum, glass, and caoutchouc, are the 
substances to which I allude, and which minister 
so essentially to modern chemical investigations. 
Without them, indeed, we might have made some 
progress, but it would have been slow ; we might 
have accomplished much, but it would have been 
far less than has been done with their aid. Some 
persons, by the employment of expensive substi- 
tutes, might have successfully pursued the sci- 
ence ; but incalculably fewer minds would have 
been engaged in its advancement. These mate- 
rials have only been duly appreciated and fully 
adopted within a very recent period. In the time 
of Lavoisier, the rich alone could make chemical 
researches ; the necessary apparatus could only 
be procured at a very great expense. 

And first, of glass : every one is familiar with 
most of the properties of this curious substance — 
its transparency, hardness, destitution of color, 
and stability under ordinary circumstances. To 
these obvious qualities we may add those which 
especially adapt it to the use of the chemist, 
namely, that it is unaffected by most acids OT 



CHEMICAL IMPLEMENTS. 15 

Other fluids contained within it. At certain tem- 
peratures it becomes more ductile and plastic than 
wax, and may be made to assume in our hands, 
before the flame of a common lamp, the form of 
every vessel we need to contain our materials, 
and of every apparatus required to pursue our ex- 
periments. 

Then, how admirable and valuable are the prop- 
erties of cork ! How little do men reflect upon 
the inestimable worth of so common a substance ! 
How few rightly esteem the importance of it to 
the progress of science, and the moral advance- 
ment of mankind ! There is no production of 
nature or art equally adapted to the purposes to 
which the chemist applies it. Cork consists of a 
soft, highly elastic substance, as a basis, having 
diffused throughout a matter with properties re- 
sembling wax, tallow, and resin, yet dissimilar to 
all of these, and termed suberin. This renders it 
perfectly impermeable to fluids, and, in a great 
measure, even to gases. It is thus the fittest 
material we possess for closing our bottles, and 
retaining their contents. By its means, and with 
the aid of caoutchouc, we connect our vessels and 
tubes of glass, and construct the most complicated 
apparatus. We form joints and links of connex- 
ion, adapt large apertures to small, and thus dis- 
pense altogether with the aid of the brass-founder 



16 LETTERS ON CHEMISTRY. 

and the mechanist. Thus the implements of the 
chemist are cheaply and easily procured, immedi- 
ately adapted to any purpose, and readily repaired 
or altered. 

Again : in investigating the composition of solid 
bodies — of minerals — we are under the necessity 
of bringing them into a liquid state, either by solu- 
tion or fusion. Now vessels of glass, of porcelain, 
and of all non-metallic substances, are destroyed 
by the means we employ for that purpose — are 
acted upon by many acids, by alkalies, and the 
alkaline carbonates. Crucibles of gold and silver 
would melt at high temperatures. But we have 
a combination of all the qualities we can desire, in 
platinum. This metal was only first adapted to 
these uses about fifty years since. It is cheaper 
than gold, harder and more durable than silver, 
infusible at all temperatures of our furnaces, and 
is left intact by acids and alkaline carbonates. 
Platinum unites all the valuable properties of gold 
and of porcelain, resisting the action of heat, and 
of almost all chemical agents. 

As no mineral analysis could be made perfectly 
without platinum vessels, had we not possessed 
this metal, the composition of minerals would 
have yet remained unknown ; without cork and 
caoutchouc we should have required the costly aid 
of the mechanician at every step. Even without 



THE LABORATORY. 17 

the latter of these adjuncts, our instruments 
would have been far more costly and fragile. 
Possessing all these gifts of nature, we economize 
incalculably our time — to us more precious than 
money ! 

Such are our instruments. An equal improve- 
ment has been accomplished in our laboratory. 
This is no longer the damp, cold, fire-proof vault 
of the metallurgist, nor the manufactory of the 
druggist, fitted up with stills and retorts. On the 
contrary, a light, warm, comfortable room, where 
beautifully constructed lamps supply the place of 
furnaces, and the pure and odorous flame of gas 
or of spirits of wine supersedes coal and other 
fuel, and gives us all the fire we need ; where 
health is not invaded, nor the free exercise of 
thought impeded ; there we pursue our inquiries, 
and interrogate nature to reveal her secrets. 

To these simple means must be added the bal- 
ance, and then we possess everything which is 
required for the most extensive researches. 

The great distinction between the manner of 
proceeding in chemistry and natural philosophy, 
is, that one weighs, the other measures. The nat- 
ural philosopher has applied his measures to na- 
ture for many centuries, but only for fifty years 
have we attempted to advance our philosophy by 
weighing. 



18 LETTERS ON CHEMISTRY. 

For all great discoveries cheiiiists are indebted 
to the balance — that incomparable instrument 
which gives permanence to every observation, 
dispels all ambiguity, establishes truth, detects 
error, and guides us in the true path of inductive 
science. 

The balance, once adopted as a means of inves- 
tigating nature, put an end to the school of Aristotle 
in physics. The explanation of natural phenomena 
by mere fanciful speculations, gave place to a true 
natural philosophy. Fire, air, earth, and water, 
could no longer be regarded as elements. Three 
of them could henceforth be considered only as 
significative of the forms in which all matter exists. 
Everything with which we are conversant upon 
the surface of the earth is solid, liquid, or aeri- 
form ; but the notion of the elementary nature of 
air, earth, and water, so universally held, was now 
discovered to belong to the errors of the past. 

Fire was found to be but the visible and per- 
ceptible indication of changes proceeding within 
the so-called elements. 

Lavoisier investigated the composition of the 
atmosphere and of water, and studied the many 
wonderful offices performed by an element com- 
mon to both in the scheme of nature, namely, 
oxygen : and he discovered many of the properties 
of this elementary gas. 



PROGRESS OF DISCOVERY. 19 

After his time, the principal problem of chem- 
ical philosophers was to determine the composi- 
tion of the solid matters composing the earth. To 
the eighteen metals previously known, were soon 
added twenty-four discovered to be constituents 
of minerals. The great mass of the earth was 
shown to be composed of metals in combination 
with oxygen, to which they are united in one, 
two, or more definite and unalterable proportions, 
forming compounds which are termed metallic 
oxides, and these again, combined with oxides of 
other bodies, essentially different to metals, name- 
ly, carbon, and silicium. If to these we add cer- 
tain compounds of sulphur with metals, in which 
the sulphur takes the place of oxygen, and forms 
sulphurets, and one other body — common salt — 
(which is a compound of sodium and chlorine), 
we have every substance which exists in a solid 
form upon our globe in any very considerable mass. 
Other compounds, innumerably various, are found 
only in small scattered quantities. 

The chemist, however, did not remain satisfied 
with the separation of minerals into their compo- 
nent elements, i. e., their analysis ; but he sought 
by synthesis, z. e., by combining the separate ele- 
ments and forming substances similar to those con- 
structed by nature, to prove the accuracy of his 
processes and the correctness of his conclusions 



20 LETTERS ON CHEMISTRi'. 

Thus he formed, for instance, pumice-stone, feM- 
spar, mica, iron pyrites, &c., artificially. 

But of all the achievements of inorganic chem- 
istry, the artificial formation of lapis lazuli was 
the most brilliant and the most conclusive. This 
mineral, as presented to us by nature, is calculated 
powerfully to arrest our attention by its beautiful 
azure-blue color, its remaining unchanged by 
exposure to air or to fire, and furnishing us with a 
most valuable pigment. Ultramarine, more precious 
than gold ! 

The analysis of lapis lazuli represented it to be 
composed of silica, alumina, and soda, three col- 
orless bodies, with sulphur and a trace of iron. 
Nothing could be discovered in it of the nature of 
a pigment, nothing to which its blue color could 
be referred, the cause of which was searched for in 
vain. It might therefore have been supposed that 
the analyst was here altogether at fault, and that at 
any rate its artificial production must be impossi- 
ble. Nevertheless, this has been accomplished, 
and simply by combining in the proper proportions, 
as determined by analysis, silica, alumina, soda, 
iron, and sulphur. Thousands of pounds weight 
are now manufactured from these ingredients, and 
this artificial ultramarine is as beautiful as the nat- 
ural, while for the price of a single ounce of the 
latter we may obtain many pounds of the former. 



ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 21 

With the production of artificial lapis lazuli, the 
formation of mineral bodies by synthesis ceased 
to be a scientific problem to the chemist ; he has 
no longer sufficient interest in it to pursue the sub- 
ject. He may now be satisfied that analysis will 
reveal to him the true constitution of minerals. But 
to the mineralogist and geologist it is still in a great 
measure an unexplored field, offering inquiries of 
tlie nij^hest interest and importance to their pursuits. 

Alter becoming acquainted with the constituent 
elements of all the substances within our reach, 
and the mutual relations of these elements, the re- 
markable transmutations to which bodies are sub- 
ject under the influence of the vital powers of 
plants and animals, became the principal object of 
chemical investigations, and the highest point of 
interest. A new science, inexhaustible as life it- 
self, is here presented us, standing upon the sound 
and solid foundation of a well-established inorganic 
chemistry. Thus the progress of science is, like 
the development of nature's works, gradual and 
expansive. After the buds and branches spring 
forth the leaves and blossoms, after the blossoms 
the fruit. 

Chemistry, in its application to animals and 
vegetables, endeavors jointly with physiology to 
enlighten us respecting the mysterious processes 
and sources of organic life. 



22 LETTERS ON CHEMISTRY. 



LETTER II 

My dear sir : In my former letter 1 remmderl 
you that three of the supposed elements of tiie an- 
cients represent the forms or state in which all the 
ponderable matter of our globe exists ; I would 
now observe, that no substance possesses abso- 
lutely any one of those conditions ; that modern 
chemistry recognises nothing unchangeably solid, 
liquid, or aeriform : means have been devised for 
effecting a change of state in almost every known 
substance. Platinum, alumina, and rock crystal, 
it is true, can not be liquefied by the most intense 
heat of our furnaces, but they melt like wax before 
the flame of the oxy-hydrogen blowpipe. On the 
other hand, of the twenty-eight gaseous bodies 
with which we are acquainted, twenty-five may 
be reduced to a liquid state, and one into a solid. 
Probably, ere long, similar changes of condition 
will be extended to every form of matter. 

There are many things relating to this conden- 
sation of the gases worthy of your attention. Most 



CONDEiVSATION OF THE OASES. 23 

aeriform bodies, when subjected to compression, 
are made to occupy a space wiiich diminishes in 
'he exact ratio of the increase of the compressing 
force. Very generally, under a force double or triple 
of the ordinary atmospheric pressure they become 
one half or one third their former volume. This 
was a long time considered to be a law, and known 
as the law of Marriotle ; but a more accurate study 
of the subject has demonstrated that this law is 
by no means of general application. The volume 
of certain gases does not decrease in the ratio of 
the increase of the force used to compress them, 
but in some, a diminution of their bulk takes place 
in y^fcir greater degree as the pressure increases. 

Again, if ammoniacal gas is reduced by a com- 
pressing force to one sixth of its volume, or car- 
bonic acid is reduced to one thirty-sixth, a portion 
of them loses entirely the form of a gas, and be- 
comes a liquid, which, whe'n the pressure is with- 
drawn, assumes again in an instant its gaseous 
state — another deviation from the law of ^larriotte. 

Our process for reducing gases into fluids is of 
admirable simplicity. A simple bent tube, or a 
reduction of temperature by artificial means, have 
superseded the powerful compressing machines 
of the early experimenters. 

The cyanuret of mercury, when heated in an 
v>pen glass tube, is resolved into cyanogen gas and 



24 LETTERS ON CHEMISTRY. 

metallic mercury ; if this substance is heated in a 
tube hermetically sealed, the decomposition occurs 
as before, but the gas, unable to escape, and shut 
up in a space several hundred times smaller than 
it would occupy as gas under the ordinary atmos 
pheric pressure, becomes a fluid in that part of the 
tube which is kept cool. 

When sulphuric acid is poured upon limestone 
in an open vessel, carbonic acid escapes with ef- 
fervescence as a gas, but if the decomposition is 
effected in a strong, close, and suitable vessel of 
iron, we obtain the carbonic acid in the state of 
liquid. In this manner it may be obtained in con- 
siderable quantities, even many pounds weight. 
Carbonic acid is separated from other bodies with 
which it is combined as a fluid under a pressure 
of thirty-six atmospheres. 

The curious properties of fluid carbonic acid 
are now generally known. When a small quan- 
tity is permitted to escape into the atmosphere, it 
assumes its gaseous state with extraordinary rapid- 
ity, and deprives the remaining fluid of caloric so 
rapidly that it congeals into a white crystalline mass 
like snow : at first it was indeed thought to be re- 
ally snow, but upon examination it proved to be 
pure frozen carbonic acid. This solid, contrary to 
expectation, exercises only a feeble pressure upon 
the surrounding medium. The fluid acid enclosed 



.DANGER OF CONDENSED GAS. 25 

in a glass tube rushes at once, when opened, into a 
gaseous state, with an explosion which shatters the 
tube into fragments ; but solid carbonic acid can be 
liandled without producing any other effect than a 
feeling of intense cold. The particles of the car- 
bonic acid being so closely approximated in the 
solid, the whole force of cohesive attraction (which 
in the fluid is weak) becomes exerted, and opposes 
its tendency to assume its gaseous state ; but as 
it receives heat from surrounding bodies, it passes 
into gas gradually and without violence. The 
transition of solid carbonic acid into gas deprives 
all around it of caloric so rapidly and to so great 
an extent, that a degree of cold is produced im- 
measurably great, the greatest indeed known. 
Ten, twenty, or more pounds weight of mercury, 
brought into contact with a mixture of ether and 
solid carbonic acid, become in a few moments firm 
and malleable. This, however, can not be accom- 
plished without considerable danger. A melancholy 
accident occurred at Paris, which will probably 
prevent for the future the formation of solid car- 
bonic acid in these large quantities, and deprive the 
next generation of the gratification of witnessing 
these curious experiments. Just before the com- 
mencement of the lecture in the Laboratory of the 
Polytechnic School, an iron cylinder, two feet and 
a half long and one foot in diameter, in which 

3 



26 LETTERS ON CHEMISTRY. 

carbonic acid had been developed for experimenl 
before the class, burst, and its fragments were 
scattered about with the most tremendous force ; 
it cut off both the legs of the assistant and killed 
him on the spot. This vessel, formed of the strong- 
est cast-iron, and shaped like a cannon, had often 
been employed to exhibit experiments in the pres- 
ence of the students. We can scarcely think, 
without shuddering, of the dreadful calamity such 
an explosion would have occasioned in a hall filled 
with spectators. 

When we had ascertained the fact of gases 
becoming fluid under the influence of cold or 
pressure, a curious property possessed by charcoal, 
that of absorbing gas to the extent of many times 
its volume, — ten, twenty, or even, as in the case 
of animoniacal gas or muriatic acid ga«, eighty or 
ninety fold — which had been long known, no longer 
remained a mystery. Some gases are absorbed 
and condensed within the pores of the charcoal, 
into a space several hundred times smaller than 
they before occupied ; and there is now no doubt 
they there become fluid, or assume a solid state. 
As in a thousand other instances, chemical action 
here supplants mechanical forces. Adhesion or 
heterogeneous attraction, as it is termed, acquired 
by this discovery a more extended meaning ; it 
had never before been thought of as a cause of 



ABSORPTION OF GASES BY POROUS BODIES. 27 

change of state in matter ; but it is now evident 
that a gas adheres ij the surface of a solid bod} 
by the same force which condenses it into a hquid. 
The smallest amount of a gas — atmospheric air 
for instance — can be compressed into a space a 
thousand times smaller by mere mechanical pres- 
sure, and then its bulk must be to the least 
measurable surface of a solid body, as a grain of 
sand to a mountain. By the mere effect of mass 
— the force of gravity — gaseous molecules are at- 
tracted by solids and adhere to their surfaces ; and 
when to this physical force is added the feeblest 
chemical affinity, the liquefiable gases can not retain 
their gaseous state. The amount of air condensed 
by these forces upon a square inch of surface is 
certainly not measurable ; but when a solid body, 
presenting several hundred square feet of surface 
within the space of a cubic inch, is brought into a 
limited volume of gas, we may understand why 
that volume is diminished, why all gases without 
exception are absorbed. A cubic inch of charcoal 
must have, at the lowest computation, a surface of 
one himdred square feet. This property of ab- 
sorbing gases varies with different kinds of char- 
coal : it is possessed in a higher degree by those 
containing the most pores, that is, where the pores 
are finer ; and in a lower degree in the more 
spongy kinds, that is, where the pores are larger 



28 LETTERS ON CHEMISTRY. 

In this manner every porous body — rockd^ 
stones, the clods of the fields, &c. — imbibe air, 
and therefore oxygen ; the smallest solid molecule 
is thus surrounded by its own atmosphere of con- 
densed oxygen ; and if in their vicinity other 
bodies exist which have an affinity for oxygen, a 
combination is effected. When, for instance, car- 
bon and hydrogen are thus present, they are 
converted into nourishment for vegetables — into 
carbonic acid and water. The development of 
heat when air is imbibed, and the production of 
steam when the earth is moistened by rain, are 
acknowledged to be consequences of this conden- 
sation by the action of surfaces. 

But the most remarkable and interesting case 
of this kind of action is the imbibition of oxygen 
by metallic platinum. This metal, when massive, 
is of a lustrous white color, but it may be brought, 
by separating it from its solutions, into so finely 
divided a state, that its particles no longer reflect 
light, and it forms a powder as black as soot. In 
this condition it absorbs eight hundred times its 
volume of oxygen gas, and this oxygen must be 
contained within it in a state of condensation very 
like that of fluid water. 

When gases are thus condensed, that is, their 
particles made to approximate in this extraordinary 
manner, their properties can be palpably shown. 



ACTION ON SPONGY PLATINUM. 29 

Their chemical actions become apparent as their 
physical characteristic disappears. The latter con- 
sists in the continual tendency of their particles to 
separate from each other ; and it is easy to imagine 
that this elasticity of gaseous bodies is the principal 
impediment to the operation of their chemical 
force ; for this becomes more energetic as their 
particles approximate. In that state in which 
they exist within the pores or upon the surface 
of solid bodies, their repulsion ceases, and their 
whole chemical action is exerted. Thus combina- 
tions which oxygen can not enter into, decomposi- 
tions which it can not effect while in the state of 
gas, take place with the greatest facility in the 
pores of platinum containing condensed oxygen. 
When a jet of hydrogen gas, for instance, is thrown 
upon spongy platinum, it combines with the oxygen 
condensed in the interior of the mass ; at their point 
of contact water is formed, and as the immediate 
consequence heat is evolved ; the platinum becomes 
red hot and the gas is inflamed. If we interrupt 
the current of the gas, the pores of the platinum 
become instantaneously filled again with oxygen ; 
and the same phenomena can be repeated a sec- 
ond time, and so on interminably. 

In finely pulverized platinum, and even in spongy 
platinum, we therefore possess a. perpetiium mobile 
— a mechanism like a watch which runs out and 

3* 



30 LETTERS ON CHEMISTRY. 

winds itself up — a force which is never «xhaustecl 
— competent to produce effects of the most power- 
ful kind, and self-renewed ad infinitum. 

Many phenomena, formerly inexplicable, are 
satisfactorily explained by these recently discov- 
ered properties of porous bodies. The metamor- 
phosis of alcohol into acetic acid, by the process 
known as the quick vinegar manufacture, depends 
upon principles, at a knowledge of which we have 
arrived by a careful study of these properties. 



THE MANUFACTURE OF SODA. 32 



LETTER III. 



My dear sir : The manufacture of soda from 
common culinary salt may be regarded as the 
foundation of all our modern improvements in the 
domestic arts ; and we may take it as affording 
an excellent illustration of the dependance of the 
various branches of human industry and commerce 
upon each other, and their relation to chemistry. 

Soda has been used from time immemorial in 
the manufacture of soap and glass, two chemical 
productions, which employ and keep in circulation 
an immense amount of capital. The quantity of 
soap consumed by a nation would be no inaccurate 
measure whereby to estimate its wealth and 
civilization. Of two countries with an equal 
amount of population, the wealthiest and most 
highly civilized will consume the greatest weight 
of soap. This consumption does not subserve 
sensual gratification, nor depend upon fashion, but 
upon the feeling of the beauty, comfort, and wel- 
fare, attendant upon cleanliness ; and a regard 



32 LETTERS ON CHEMISTRY. 

to this feeling is coincident with wealth and 
civilization. The rich in the middle ages con- 
c(.'aled a want of cleanliness in their clothes and 
persons, under a profusion of costly scents and 
essences, while they were more luxurious in 
eating and drinking, in apparel and horses. With 
us a want of cleanliness is equivalent to insup- 
portable misery and misfortune. 

Soap belongs to those manufactured products, 
the money value of which continually disappears 
from circulation, and requires to be continually 
renewed. It is one of the few substances whicli 
are entirely consumed by use, leaving no product 
of any worth. Broken glass and bottles arc by 
no means absolutely worthless ; for rags we may 
purchase new cloth, but soap-water has no value 
whatever. It would be interesting to know accu- 
rately the amount of capital involved in the manu- 
facture of soap ; it is certairdy as large as that 
employed in the coffee trade, with this important 
difference as respects Germany, that it is entirely 
derived from our own soil. France formerly im- 
ported soda from Spain, Spanish soda being of the 
best quality, at an annual expenditure of twenty to 
thirty millions of francs. During the war with 
England, the price of soda, and consequently of 
soap and glass, rose continually ; and all manufac- 
tures suffered in consequence. 



manufacturp: of sulphuric acid. 33 

The present method of making soda from com- 
mon salt was discovered by Le Blanc at the end 
of the last century. It was a rich boon for France, 
and became of the highest importance during the 
war of Napoleon. In a very short time it was 
manufactured to an extraordinary extent, especially 
at the seat of the soap manufactories. Marseilles 
possessed for a time a monopoly of soda and soap. 
The policy of Napoleon deprived that city of the 
advantages derived from this great source of com- 
merce, and thus excited the hostility of the popu- 
lation to his dynasty, which became favorable to 
the restoration of the Bourbons. A curious result 
of an improvement in a chemical manufacture ! 
It was not long, however, in reaching England. 

In order to prepare the soda of commerce (which 
is the carbonate) from common salt, it is first con- 
verted into Glauber's salt (sulphate of soda). For 
this purpose 80 pounds weight of concentrated 
sulphuric acid (oil of vitrol) are required to 100 
pounds of common salt. The duty upon salt 
checked, for a short time, the full advantage of 
this discovery ; but when the government repealed 
the duty, and its price was reduced to its mini 
mum, the cost of soda depended upon that of sul- 
phuric acid. 

The demand for sulphuric acid now increased 
to an immense extent ; and, to supply it, capital 



34 LETTERS ON CHEMISTRY 

was embarked abundantly, as ii afforded an ex- 
cellent remuneration. The origin and formation of 
sulphuric acid was studied most carefully; and from 
year to year, better, simpler, and cheaper methods 
for making it were discovered. With every im- 
provement in the mode of manufacture, its price 
fell ; and its sale increased in an equal ratio. 

Sulphuric acid is now manufactured in leaden 
chambers, of such magnitude that they would 
contain the whole of an ordinary sized house. As 
regards the process and the apparatus, this manu- 
facture has reached its acme — scarcely is either 
susceptible of improvement. The leaden plates of 
which the chambers are constructed, requiring to 
be joined together with lead (since tin or solder 
would be acted on by the acid), this process was, 
until lately, as expensive as the plates themselves ; 
but now, by means of the oxy-hydrogen blow- 
pipe, the plates are cemented together at their 
edges, by mere fusion, without the intervention of 
any kind of solder. 

And then, as to the process ; according to theory, 
100 pounds weight of sulphur ought to produce 
306 pounds of sulphuric acid ; in practice, 300 
pounds are actually obtained ; the amount of loss 
is therefore too insignificant for consideration. 

Again ; saltpetre being indispensable in making 
sulphuric acid, the commercial value of that salt 



MANUFACTURE OF SULPHURIC ACID. 35 

had formerly an important influence upon its price. 
It is true that 100 pounds of saltpetre only are 
required to 1000 pounds of sulphur; but its cost 
was four times greater than an equal weight of 
the latter. 

Travellers had observed, near the small seaport 
of Yquiqui, in the district of Atacama, in Peru, 
an efflorescence covering the ground over ex- 
tensive districts. This was found to consist prin- 
cipally of nitrate of soda. Advantage was quickly 
taken of this discovery. The quantity of this 
valuable salt proved to be inexhaustible, as it 
exists in beds extending over more than 200 
square miles. It was brought to England at less 
than half the freight of the East India saltpetre 
(nitrate of potassa) ; and as, in the chemical manu- 
facture, neither the potash nor the soda were 
required, but only the nitric acid, in combination 
with the alkali, the soda-saltpetre of South America 
soon supplanted the potash-nitre of the East. The 
manufacture of sulphuric acid received a new im- 
pulse ; its price was much diminished without 
injury to the manufacturer ; and, with the excep- 
tion of fluctuations, caused by the impediments 
thrown in the way of the export of sulphur from 
Sicily, it soon became reduced to a miidmum, and 
remained stationary. 

Potash-saltpetre is now only employed in the 



36 LF.TTERS OF CHKMISTRY. 

manufaclure of gunpowder ; it is no longer in 
demand for other purposes ; and thus, if Govern- 
ment effect a saving of many hundred thousand 
pounds annually in gunpowder, this economy 
must be attributed to the increased manufacture 
of sulphuric acid. 

We may form an idea of the amount of sul- 
phuric acid consumed, when we find that 50,000 
pounds weight are made by a small manufactory, 
and from 200,000 to 600,000 pounds by a large 
one, annually. This manufacture causes immense 
sums to flow annually into Sicily. It has intro- 
duced industry and wealth into the arid and 
desolate districts of Atacama. It has enabled us 
to obtain platina from its ores at a moderate and 
yet remunerating price ; since the vats employed 
for concentrating this acid are constructed of this 
metal, and cost from 1000/. to 2000/. sterling. It 
leads to frequent improvements in the manufacture 
of glass, which continually becomes cheaper and 
more beautiful. It enables us to return to our 
fields all their potash — a most valuable and im- 
portant manure — in the form of ashes, by sub- 
stituting soda in the manufacture of glass and soap. 

It is impossible to trace, within the compass of 
a letter, all the ramifications of this tissue of 
changes and improvements resulting from one 
chemical manufacture ; but I must still claim your 



NEW BLEACHING PROCESS. 37 

attention to a few more of its most important and 
immediate results. I have already told you, that 
in the manufacture of soda from culinary salt, it is 
lirst converted into sulphate of soda. In this first 
part of tne process, the action of sulphuric acid 
produces primary muriatic acid to the extent of 
one and a half the amount of the sulphuric acid 
employ()d. At first, the profit upon the soda was 
so great that no one took the trouble to collect the 
muriatic acid ; indeed it had no commercial value. 
A profitable application of it was, however, soon 
discovered : it is a compound of chlorine, and this 
substance may be obtained from it purer than 
from any other source. The bleaching power of 
chlorine has long been known ; but it was only 
employed upon a large scale after it was ob- 
tained from residuary muriatic acid, and it was 
found that in combination with lime it could be 
transported to distances without inconvenience. 
Thenceforth it was used for bleaching cotton ; 
and, but for this new bleaching process, it would 
scarcely have been possible for the cotton manu- 
facture ot Great Britain to have attained its pres- 
ent enormous extent — it could not have com- 
jjeted in price with France and Germany. In the 
old process for bleaching, every piece must be 
exposed to the air and light during several weeks 
in the summer, and kept continually moist by 

4 



38 LETTERS ON CHEMISTRY. 

manual labor. For this purpose, meadow land, 
suitably situated, was essential. But a single 
establishment near Glasgow bleaches 1,400 pieces 
of cotton daily, throughout the year. What an 
enormous capital would be required to purchase 
land for this purpose ! How greatly would it in- 
crease the cost of bleaching to pay interest upon 
this capital, or to hire so much land in England ! 
This expense would scarcely have been felt in 
Germany. Beside the diminished expense, the 
cotton stuffs bleached with chlorine suffer less in 
the hands of skilful workmen than those bleached 
in the sun ; and already the peasantry in some 
parts of Germany hav^e adopted it, and find it ad- 
vantageous. 

Another use to which cheap muriatic acid is 
applied, is the manufacture of glue from bones. 
Bone contains from 30 to 36 per cent, of earthy 
matter — chiefly phosphate of lime, and the re- 
mainder is gelatine. When bones are digested 
in muriatic acid, they become transparent and 
flexible like leather, the earthy matter is dissolved, 
and after the acid is all carefully washed away, 
pieces of glue of the same shape as the bones re- 
main, which are soluble in hot water and adapted 
to all the purposes of ordinary glue, without fur- 
ther preparation. 

Another important application of sulphuric acid 



SILVER REFINING. 39 

may be adduced, namely, to the refining o'f silver 
and the separation of gold, which is always present 
in some proportion in native silver. Silver, as it 
is usually obtained from mines in Europe, con- 
tains, in 16 ounces, 6 to 8 ounces of copper. When 
used by the silversniith, or in coining, 16 ounces 
must contain in Germany 13 ounces of silver, in 
England about 14},. But this alloy is always 
made artificially, by mixing pure silver with the 
due proportion of the copper ; and for this pur- 
pose the silver must be obtained pure by the re- 
finer. This he formerly effected by amalgama- 
tion f or by roasting it. with lead ; and the cost of 
this process was about 21. for every hundred 
weight of silver. In the silver so prepared, about 
l^QQ to 2oVo^^ P^^^ ^^ S*-*^^ remained. To effect 
the separation of this by nitric hydrochloric acid 
was more expensive than the value of the gold ; it 
was therefore left in utensils, or circulated in coin, 
valueless. The copper, too, of the native silver 
was of no use whatever. But the io^qq^^ P^^^ ^^ 
gold, being about one and one half per cent, of 
the value of the silver, now covers the cost of 
refining, and affords an adequate profit to the re- 
finer ; so that he effects the separation of the cop- 
per, and returns to his employer the whole amount 
of the pure silver, as well as the copper, without 
demanding any payment : he is amply remunerated 



40 LETTERS ON CHEMISTRY. 

by that minute portion of gold. The new process 
of refining is a most beautiful chemical operation. 
The granulated metal is boiled in concentrated 
sulphuric acid, which dissolves both the silver and 
the copper, leaving the gold nearly pure, in the 
form of a black powder. The solution is then 
placed in a leaden vessel containing metallic cop- 
per ; this is gradually dissolved, and the silver 
precipitated in a pure metallic state. The sul- 
phate of copper is also a valuable product, being 
employed in the manufacture of green and blue 
pigments. 

Other immediate results^of the economical pro- 
duction of sulphuric acid, are the general employ- 
ment of phosphorus matches, and of stearine 
candles — that beautiful substitute for tallow and 
wax. Twenty-five years ago, the present prices 
and extensive applications of sulphuric and muri- 
atic acids, of soda, phosphorus, &c., would have 
been considered utterly impossible. Who is able 
to foresee what new and unthought-of chemical 
productions, ministering to the service and com- 
forts of mankind, the next twenty-five years may 
produce ? 

x\fter these remarks you will perceive that it is 
no exaggeration to say, we may fairly judge of 
the commercial prosperity of a country from the 
amount of sulphuric acid it cons'mies. Reflecting 



TRADE IN SULPHUR. 41 

upon the important influence which the price of 
sulphur exercises upon the cost of production of 
bleached and printed cotton stuffs, soap, glass^ 
&c., and remembering that Great Britain supplies 
America, Spain, Portugal, and the East, with 
these, exchanging them for raw cotton, silk, wine, 
raisins, indigo, &c., &c., we can understand why 
the English Government should have resolved to 
resort to war with Naples, in order to abolish the 
sulphur monopoly, which the latter power at- 
tempted recently to establish. Nothing could be 
more opposed to the true interests of Sicily than 
such a monopoly ; indeed, had it been maintained 
a few years, it is highly probable that sulphur, the 
source of her wealth, would have been rendered 
perfectly A^alueless to her. Science and industry 
form a power to which it is dangerous to present 
impediments. It was not difficult to perceive that 
the issue would be the entire cessation of the ex- 
portation of sulphur from Sicily. In the short pe- 
riod the sulphur monopoly lasted, fifteen patents 
were taken out for methods to obtain back the 
sulphuric acid used in making soda. Admitting 
that these fifteen experiments were not perfectly 
successful, there can be no doubt it would ere long 
have been accomplished. But then, in gypsum 
(sulphate of lime), and in heavy-spar (sulphate of 
barytes), we possess mountains of sulphuric acid ] 

4* 



42 LETTERS ON CHEMISTRY. 

in galena (sulphate of lead), and in iron pyrites, 
we have no less abundance of sulphur. The prob- 
lem is, how to separate the sulphuric acid, or the 
sulphur, from these native stores. Hundreds of 
thousands of pounds weight of sulphuric acid were 
prepared from iron pyrites, while the high price 
of sulphur consequent upon the monopoly lasted. 
We should probably ere long have triumphed over 
all difficulties, and have separated it from gypsum. 
The impulse has been given, the possibility of the 
process proved, and it may happen in a few years 
that the inconsiderate financial speculation of 
Naples may deprive her of that lucrative com- 
merce, lu like manner Russia, by her prohibitory 
system, has lost much of her trade in tallow and 
potash. One country purchases only from absolute 
necessity from another, which excludes her own 
productions from her markets. Instead of the 
tallow and linseed oil of Russia, Great Britain'now 
uses palm oil and cocoa-nut oil of other countries. 
Precisely analogous is the combination of workmen 
against their employers, which has led to the con- 
struction of many admirable machines for superse- 
ding manual labor. In commerce and industry 
every imprudence carries with it its own punish- 
ment ; every oppression immediately and sensibly 
recoils upon the head of those from whom it em- 
anates. 



THEORY AND PRACTICE. 43 



LETTER IV. 

My dear sir One of the most influential causes 
of improvement in the social condition of mankind 
is that spirit of enterprise which induces men of 
capital to adopt and carry out suggestions for the 
improvement of machinery, the creation of new 
articles of commerce, or the cheaper production 
of those already in demand ; and we can not but 
admire the energy with which such men devote 
their talents, their time, and their wealth, to realize 
the benefits of the discoveries and inventions of 
science. For even when they are expended upon 
objects wholly incapable of realization — nay, even 
when the idea which first gave the impulse proves 
in the end to be altogether impracticable or absurd, 
immediate good to the community generally en- 
sues ; some useful and perhaps unlooked-for result 
flows directly, or springs ultimately, from exer- 
tions frustrated in their main design. Thus it is 
also in the pursuit of science. Theories lead to 
experiments and investigations ; and he who inves- 



44 LETTERS ON CHEMISTE-V. 

tigates will scarcely ever fail of being rewarded by 
discoveries. It may be, indeed, the theory sought 
to be established is entirely unfounded in nature ; 
but while searching in a right spirit for one thing, 
the inquirer may be rewarded by finding others far 
more valuable than those which he sought. 

At the present moment, electro-magnetism, as a 
moving power, is engaging great attention and 
study ; wonders are expected from its application 
to this purpose. According to the sanguine expec- 
tations of many persons, it will shortly be employed 
to put into motion every kind of machinery, and 
among other things it will be applied to impel the 
carriages of railroads, and this at so small a cost, 
that expense will no longer be matter of consider- 
ation. England is to lose her superiority as a 
manufacturing country, inasmuch as her vast store 
of coals will no longer avail her as an economical 
source of motive power. " We," say the German 
cultivators of this science, " have cheap zinc, and, 
how small a quantity of this metal is required to 
turn a lathe, and consequently to give motion to 
any kind of machinery !" 

Such expectations may be very attractive, and 
yet they are altogether illusory ! they will not 
bear the test of many simple calculations ; and 
this our friends have not troubled themselves to 
institute 



ELECTRO-MAGNETISM. ' 45 

With a simple flame of spirits of wine, under a 
proper vessel containing boiling water, a small 
carriage of 200 to 300 pounds weight can be put 
into motion, or a weight of 80 to 100 pounds may 
be raised to a height of 20 feet. The same effects 
may be produced by dissolving zinc in dilute sul- 
phuric acid in a certain apparatus. This is cer- 
tainly an astonishing and highly interesting discov- 
ery ; but the question to be determined is, which 
of the two processes is the least expensive ? 

In order to answer this question, and to judge 
correctly of the hopes entertained from this dis- 
covery, let me remind you of what chemists de- 
nominate " equivalents." These are certain unal- 
terable ratios of effects which are proportionate to 
each other, and may therefore be expressed in 
numbers. Thus, if we require 8 pounds of oxy- 
gen to produce a certain effect, and we wish to 
employ chlorine for the same effect, we must em- 
ploy neither more nor less than 35^ pounds 
weight. In the same manner, 6 pounds weight 
of coal are equivalent to 32 pounds weight of zinc. 
The numbers representing chemical equivalents 
express very general ratios of effects, compre- 
hending for all bodies all the actions they are ca- 
pable of producing. 

If zinc be combined in a certain manner with 
another metal, and submitted to the action of dilute 



46 'LETTERS ON CHEMISTRY. 

sulphuric acid, it is dissolved in the form of an 
oxide ; it is in fact burned at the expense of the 
oxygen contained in the fluid. A consequence of 
this action is the production of an electric current 
which, if conducted through a wire, renders it 
magnetic. In thus effecting the solution of a pound 
weight, for example, of zinc, we obtain a definite 
amount of force adequate to raise a given weight 
one inch, and to keep it suspended ; and the 
amount of weight it will be capable of suspending 
will be the greater the more rapidly the zinc is 
dissolved. 

By alternately interrupting and renewing the 
contact of the zinc with the acid, and by very sim- 
ple mechanical arrangements, we can give to the 
iron an upward and downward or a horizontal mo- 
tion, thus producing the conditions essential to the 
motion of any machinery. 

This moving force is produced by the oxidation 
of the zinc ; and, setting aside the name given to 
the force in this case, we know that it can be pro- 
duced in another manner. If we burn the zinc 
under the boiler of a steam-engine, consequently 
in the oxygen of the air, instead of the galvanic 
pile, we should produce steam, and by it a certain 
amount of force. If we should assume (which, 
however, is not proved), that the quantity of force 
is unequal in these cases — that, for instance, we 



ELECTRO-MAGNETISM. 47 

had obtained double or triple the amount in the 
galvanic pile, or that in -this mode of generating 
force less loss is sustained — we must still recollect 
the equivalents of zinc and coal, and make these 
elements of our calculation. According to the ex- 
periments of Despretz, 6 pounds weight of zinc, 
in combining with oxygen, develop no more heat 
than 1 pound of coal ; consequently, under equal 
conditions, we can produce six times the amount 
of force with a pound of coal as with a pound of 
zinc. It is therefore obvious that it would be 
more advantageous to employ coal instead of zinc, 
even if the latter produced four times as much 
force in a galvanic pile, as an equal weight of coal 
by its combustion under a boiler. Indeed it is 
highly probable, that if we burn under the boiler 
of a steam-engine the quantity of coal required for 
smelting the zinc from its ores, we shall produce far 
more force than the whole of the zinc so obtained 
could originate in any form of apparatus whatever. 
Heat, electricity, and magnetism, have a similar 
relation to each other as the chemical equivalents 
of coal, zinc, and oxygen. By a certain measure 
of electricity w*e produce a corresponding propor- 
tion of heat or of magnetic power ; we obtain 
that electricity by chemical affinity, which in one 
shape produces heat, in another electricity or mag- 
netism. A certain amount of affinity produces an 



48 LETTERS ON CHEMISTRY. 

equivalent of electricity in the same manner as, 
on the other hand, we decompose equivalents of 
chemical compounds by a definite measure of elec- 
tricity. The magnetic force of the pile is there- 
fore limited to the extent of the chemical affinity, 
and in the case before us is obtained by the com- 
bination of the zinc and sulphuric acid. In the 
combustion of coal, the heat results from, and is 
measured by, the affinity of the oxygen of the at- 
mosphere for that substance. 

It is true that, with a very small expense of 
zinc, we can make an iron wire a magnet capable 
of sustaining a thousand pounds weight of iron : let 
as not allow ourselves to be misled by this. Such 
a magnet could not raise a single pound weight of 
iron two inches, and therefore could not impart 
motion. The magnet acts like a rock, which while 
at rest presses with a weight of a thousand pounds 
upon a basis : it is like an enclosed lake, without 
an outlet and without a fall. But it may be said, 
we have, by mechanical arrangements, given it an 
outlet and a fall. True ; and this must be regarded 
as a great triumph of mechanics ; and I believe it 
is susceptible of further improvements, by which 
greater force may be obtained. But with every 
conceivable advantage of mechanism, no one will 
dispute that one pound of coal, under the boiler of 
a steam-engine, will give motion to a mass several 



ELECTRO-MAGNETISM. 49 

hundred times greater than a pound of zinc in the 
galvanic pile. 

Our experience of the employment of electro- 
magnetism as a motory power is, however, too 
recent to enable us to foresee the ultimate results 
of contrivances to apply it ; and, therefore, those 
who have devoted themselves to solve the problem 
of its application should not be discouraged, inas- 
'rauch as it would undoubtedly be a most important 
achievement to supersede the steam-engine, and 
thus escape the danger of railroads, even at double 
their expense. 

Professor Weber of Gottingen has thrown out a 
suggestion, that if a contrivance could be devised 
to enable us to convert at will the wheels of the 
steam-carriage into magnets, we should be enabled 
to ascend and descend acclivities with great facil- 
ity. This notion may ultimately be, to a certain 
extent, realized. 

The employment of the galvanic pile as a mo- 
tory power, however, must, like every other con- 
trivance, depend upon the question of its relative 
economy : probably some time hence it may so far 
succeed as to be adopted in certain favorable lo- 
calities ; it may stand in the same relation to steam 
power as the manufacture of beet sugar bears to 
that of cane, or as the production of gas from oils 
and resins to that from mineral coal. 

5 



50 LETTERS ON CHEMISTRY. 

The history of beet-root sugar aflords us an 
excellent illustration of the effect of prices upon 
commercial productions. This branch of industry- 
seems at length, as to its processes, to be perfected. 
The most beautiful white sugar is now manufac- 
tured from the beet-root, in the place of the treacle- 
like sugar, having the taste of the root, which was 
first obtained ; and instead of 3 or 4 per cent., the 
proportion obtained by A chard, double or even 
treble that amount is now produced. And notwith- 
standing the perfection of the manufacture, it is 
probable it will ere long be in most places entirely 
discontinued. In the years 1824 to 1 827, the prices 
of agricultural produce were much lower than at 
present, while the price of sugar was the same. At 
that time one maker* of wheat was \0s., and one 
klafterf of wood I8s., and land was falling in price. 
Thus, food and fuel were cheap, and the demand 
for sugar unlimited ; it was, therefore, advantageous 
to grow beet-root, and to dispose of the produce of 
land as sugar. All these circumstances are now 
different. A maker of wheat costs I8s.; a klafter 
of wood, 305. to 36^. Wages have risen, but not 
in proportion, while the price of colonial sugar 
has fallen. Within the limits of the German 

* Malter — a measure containing sever^il bushels, but 
varying in different countries. 

t Klafter — a cord, a stack, measuring six f« et every way. 



BEET-ROOT SUGAR. 51 

commercial league, as, for instance, at Frankfort- 
on-the-Maine, a pound of the whitest and best 
loaf sugar is Id. ; the import duty is 3f(i., or 30^. 
per cwt., leaving 3^d. as the price of the sugar. 
In the year 1827, then, one malter of wheat was 
equal to 40 lbs. weight of sugar, w^hile at present 
that quantity of wheat is worth 70 lbs. of sugar. 
If indeed fuel were the same in price as formerly, 
and 70 lbs. of sugar could be obtained from the 
same quantity of the root as then yielded 40 lbs., 
it might still be advantageously produced ; but the 
amount, if now obtained by the most approved 
methods of extraction, falls far short of this ; and 
as fuel is double the price, and labor dearer, it 
follows that, at present, it is far more advantageous 
to cultivate wheat and to purchase sugar. 

There are, however, other elements which must 
enter into our calculations ; but these serve to con- 
firm our conclusion that the manufacture of beet- 
root sugar as a commercial speculation must cease. 
The leaves and residue of the root, after the juice 
was expressed, were used as food for cattle, and 
their value naturally increased with the price of 
grain. By the process formerly pursued, 75 lbs. 
weight of juice were obtained from 100 lbs. of 
beet-root, and gave 5 lbs. of sugar. The method of 
Schiitzenbach, which was eagerly adopted by the 
manufacturers, produced from the same quantity 



52 LETTERS ON CHEMISTRY. 

of root 8 lbs. of sugar; but it was attended wi.h 
more expense to produce, and the loss of the 
residue as food for cattle. The increased expense 
in this process arises from the larger quantity of 
fuel required to evaporate the water ; for instead 
of merely evaporating the juice, the dry residue is 
treated with water, and we require fuel sufficient 
to evaporate 106 lbs. of fluid instead of 75 lbs., and 
the residue is only fit for manure. The additional 
3 lbs. of sugar are purchased at the expense of 
much fuel, and the loss of the residue as an article 
of food. 

If the valley of the Rhine possessed mines of 
diamonds as rich as those of Golconda, Visiapoor, 
or the Brazils, they would probably not be worth 
the working : at those places the cost of extraction 
is 28^. to 30s. the carat. With us it amounts to 
three or four times as much — to more, in fact, than 
diamonds are worth in the market. The sand of 
the Rhine contains gold ; and in the Grand Dutchy 
of Baden many persons are occupied in gold-wash- 
ing when wages are low ; but as soon as they rise, 
this employment ceases. The manufacture of sugar 
from beet-root, in like manner, twelve to fourteen 
years ago, offered advantages which are now lost : 
instead, therefore, of maintaining it at a great 
sacrifice, it would be more rea&onable, more in 
accordance with true natural economy, to cultivate 



GAS MANUFACTURE. 53 

Other and more valuable productions, and with thera 
purchase sugar. Not only would the state be a 
gainer, but every member of the community. This 
argument does not apply, perhaps, to France and 
Bohemia, where the prices of fuel and of colonial 
sugar are very different to those in Germany. 

The manufacture of gas for lighting, from coals, 
resin, and oils, stands with us on the same barren 
ground. 

The materials from which gas is manufactured 
in England bears a direct proportion to the price 
of corn ; there the prices of tallow and oil are 
twice as great as in Germany, but iron and coal 
are two thirds cheaper ; and even in England the 
manufacture of gas is only advantageous when the 
other products of the distillation of coal, the coke, 
etc., can be sold. 

It would certainly be esteemed one of the great- 
est discoveries of the age if any one could succeed 
in condensing coal gas into a white, dry, solid, 
odorless substance, portable, and capable of being 
placed upon a candlestick, and burned in a lamp. 
Wax, tallow, and oil, are combustible gases in a 
solid or fluid form, which ofler many advantages 
for lighting, not performed by gas : they furnish, 
in well-constructed lamps, as much light, without 
requiring the expensive apparatus necessary for 
the combustion of gas, and they are generally more 



54 LETTERS ON CHEMISTRY. 

economical. In large towns, or such establish- 
ments as hotels, where coke is in demand, and 
where losses in stolen tallow or oil must be con- 
sidered, together with the labor in snuffing candles . 
and cleaning lamps, the higher price of gas is 
compensated. In places where gas can be man- 
ufactured from resin, oil of turpentine, and other 
cheap oil, as at Frankfort, this is advantageous so 
long as it is pursued on a small scale only. If 
large towns were lighted in the same manner, the 
materials would rise in price : the whole amount 
at present produced would scarcely suffice for two 
such towns as Berlin and Munich. But no just 
calculation can be made from the present prices 
of turpentine, resin, &c., which are not produced 
upon any large scale. 



laOMEiilaji. 5S 



\ v7tti:r V 



Mv^ DEAR SIR : Until very recently it was sup- 
posed that the physical qualities of bodies, that is, 
hardness, color, destiny, transparency, &c., and 
still more their chemical properties, must depend 
upon the nature of their elements, or upon their 
composition. It was tacitly received as a princi- 
ple, that two bodies containing the same elements 
in the same proportion, must of necessity possess 
the same properties. We could not imagine an 
exact identity of composition, giving rise to two 
bodies entirely different in their sensible appear- 
ance and chemical relations. The most ingenious 
philosophers entertained the opinion that chemical 
combination is an inter-penetration of the particles 
of different kinds of matter, and that all matter is 
susceptible of infinite division. This has proved 
to be altogether a mistake. If matter were in- 
finitely divisible in this sense, its particles must 
be imponderable, and a million of such molecules 
could not weigh more than an infinitely small one. 



5b LETTERS ON CHEWISTRY. 

But the particles of that imponderable matter, 
which, striking upon the retina, gives us the 
sensation of light, are not in a mathematical sense 
infinitely small. 

Inter-penetration of elements in the production 
of a chemical compound, supposes two distinct 
bodies, A and B, to t/cc(jpy o-.ic a.id the same space 
at the same time. If this were so, different prop- 
erties could not exist with an equal and iderti- 
cal composition. 

That hypothesis, however, has shared the fate 
of innumerable imaginative explanations of natural 
phenomena, in which our predecessors indulged. 
They have now no advocate. The force of truth 
dependant upon observation is irresistible. A 
great many substances have been discovered 
among organic bodies, composed of the same 
elements in the same relative proportions, and 
yet exhibiting physical and chemical properties 
perfectly distinct one from another. To such sub- 
stances the term Isomeric (from '^-'s equal and 
/^«^po5 part) is applied. A great class of bodies 
known as the volatile oils, oil of turpentine, essence 
of lemons, oil of balsam, of copaiba, oil of rosemary, 
oil of juniper, and many others, differing widely 
from each other in their odor, in their medicinal 
effects, in their boiling point, in their specific 
gravity, &c., are exactly identical in composition, 



ISOMERISM. 57 

' — they contain the same elements, carbon and 
hydrogen, in the same proportions. 

How admirably simple does the chemistry of 
organic nature present itself to us from this poini 
of view. An extraordinary variety of compound 
bodies produced with equal weights of two ele- 
ments ! and how wide their dissimilarity ! The 
crystalHzed part of the oil of roses, the delicious 
fragrancy of which is so well known, a solid at 
ordinary temperatures, although readily volatile, 
is a compound body containing exactly the same 
elements, and in the same proportion, as the gas 
we employ for lighting our streets ; and, in short, 
the same elements, in the same relative quantities, 
are found in a dozen other compounds, all differing 
essentially in their physical and chemical prop- 
erties. 

These remarkable truths, so highly important 
in their applications, were not received and ad- 
mitted assufficiently established, without abundant 
proofs. Many examples have long been known 
where the analysis of two different bodies gave 
the same composition ; but such cases were re- 
garded as doubtful : at any rate, they were isolated 
observations, homeless in the realms of science, 
until, at length, examples were discovered of two 
or more bodies, whose absolute identity of com- 
position, with totally distinct properties, could be 



58 LETTERS ON CHEMISTRY. 

demonstrated in a more obvious and conclusive 
manner than by mere analysis ; that is, they can 
be converted and reconverted into each other 
without addition and without subtraction. 

In cyanuric acid, hydrated cyanic acid, and cy 
amelide, we have three such isomeric compounds 

Cyanuric acid is crystalUne, soluble in water 
and capable of forming salts with metallic oxides 

Hydrated cyanic acid is a volative and highly 
blistering fluid, which can not be brought into 
contact with water, without being instantaneously 
decomposed. 

Cyamelide is a white substance very like por- 
celain, absolutely insoluble in water. 

Now if we place the first, — cyanuric acid, — in a 
vessel hermetically sealed, and apply a high degree 
of heat, it is converted by its influence into 
hydrated cyanic acid ; and, then, if this is kept 
for some time at the common temperature, it passes 
into cyamelide, no other element being present. 
And, again inversely, cyamelide can be converted 
into cyanuric acid and hydrated cyanic acid. 

We have three other bodies which pass through 
similar changes, in aldehyde, metaldehyde, and 
eltaldehyde ; and, again two, in urea and cyanuret 
of ammonia. Further, 100 parts of aldehyde 
hydrated butyric acid and acetic ether contain the 
same elements iji the same proportion. Thus on« 



INDIVISIBILITY OF MATTER. 59 

substance may be converted into another without 
addition or subtraction, and without the participa- 
tion of any foreign bodies in the change. 

The doctrine that matter is not infinitely 
divisible, but on the contrary, consists of atoms 
incapable of further division, alone furnishes us 
with a satisfactory explanation of these phenomena. 
In chemical combinations, the ultimate atoms of 
bodies do not penetrate each other, they are only 
arranged side by side in a certain order, and the 
properties of the compound depend entirely upon 
this order. If they are made to change their 
place — their mode of arrangement — by an impulse 
from without, they combine again in a different 
manner, and another compound is formed with 
totally different properties. We may suppose 
that one atom combines with one atom of another 
element to form a compound atom, while in other 
bodies, two and two, four and four, eight and 
eight, are united ; so that in all such compounds 
the amount per cent, of the elements is absolutely 
equal ; and yet their physical and chemical prop- 
erties must be totally different, the constitution 
of each atom being peculiar, in one body consist- 
ing of two, in another of four, in the third of eight, 
and in a fourth of sixteen simple atoms. 

The discovery of these facts immediately led to 
many most beautiful and interesting results -, they 



60 LETTERS ON CHEMISTRY. 

furnished us with a satisfactory explanation of 
observations which were before veiled in mystery 
— a key to many of nature's most curious recesses 

Again, solid bodies, whether simple or com- 
pound, are japable of existing in two states, which 
are known by the terms amorphous and crystalline. 

When matter is passing from a gaseous or liquid 
state slowly into a solid, an incessant motion is 
observed, as if the molecules were minute mag- 
nets ; they are seen to repel each other in one 
direction, and to attract and cohere together in 
another, and in the end become arranged into a 
regular form, which, under equal circumstances, 
is always the same for any given kind of matter ; 
that is, crystals are formed. 

Time and freedom of motion for the particles of 
bodies are necessary to the formation of crystals. 
If we force a fluid or a gas to become suddenly 
solid, leaving no time for its particles to arrange 
themselves, and cohere in that direction in which 
the cohesive attraction is strongest, no crystals 
will be formed, but the resulting solid will have a 
different color, a different degree of hardness and 
cohesion, and will refract light differently ; in one 
word, will be amorphous. Thus we have cinnabar 
as a red and a jet-black substance ; sulphur a 
fixed and brittle body, and soft, semitransparent 



ISOMORPHISM 61 

and ductil»3 ; glass as a milk-white opaque sub- 
stance, so hard that it strikes fire with steel, and 
in its ordinary and well-known state. These dis- 
similar states and properties of the same body are 
occasioned in one case by a regular, in the other 
by an irregular arrangement of its atoms ; one is 
crystalline, the other amorphous. 

Applying these facts to natural productions, we 
have reason to believe that clay-slate and many 
kinds of greywacke are amorphous feldspar, as 
transition limestone is amorphous marble, basalt 
and lava mixtures of amorphous zeolite and augite. 
Anything that influences the cohesion, must also 
in a certain degree alter the properties of bodies. 
Carbonate of lime, if crystallized at ordinary tem- 
peratures, possesses the crystalline form, hardness, 
and refracting power of common spar ; if crystal- 
lized at a higher temperature, it has the form and 
properties of arragonite. 

Finally, Isomorphism or the equality of form of 
many chemical compounds having a different com- 
position, tends to prove that matter consists of 
atoms the mere arrangement of which produces all 
the properties of bodies. But when we find that 
a different arrangement of the same elements gives 
rise to various physical and chemical properties, 
and a similar arrangement of different elements 
produces properties very much the same^ may we 

6 



62 LETTERS ON CHEMISTRY. 

not inquire whether some of those bodies which 
we regard as elements may not be merely modifi- 
cations of the same substance ? whether they are 
not the same matter in a different state of arrange- 
ment ? We know in fact the existence of iron in 
two states, so dissimilar, that in the one, it is to 
the electric chain like platinum, and in the other 
it is like zinc ; so that powerful galvanic machines 
have been constructed of this one metal. 

Among the elements are several instances of 
remarkable similarity of properties. Thus there 
is a strong resemblance between platinum and iri- 
dium ; bromine and iodine ; iron, manganese and 
magnesium ; cobalt and nickel ; phosphorus and 
arsenic ; but this resemblance consists mainly in 
their forming isomorphous compounds in which 
these elements exist in the same relative propor- 
tion. These compounds are similar, because the 
atoms of wliich they are composed are arranged 
in the same manner. The converse of this is also 
true : nitrate of strontia becomes quite dissimilar 
to its common state if a certain proportion of wa- 
ter is taken into its composition. 

If we suppose selenium to be merely modified 
sulphur and phosphorus, modified arsenic, how 
does it happen, we must inquire, that sulphuric 
acid and selenic acid, phosphoric and arsenic acid, 
respectively form compounds which it is impossible 



INCOxWERTIBILITY OF ELEMENTS. 63 

to distinguish by their form and solubility ? Were 
these merely isomeric they ought to exhibit prop- 
erties quite dissimilar ! 

We have not, I believe, at present the remotest 
ground to suppose that any one of those substances 
which chemists regard as elements can be convert- 
ed into another. Such a conversion, indeed, would 
presuppose that the element was composed of two 
or more ingredients, and was in fact not an ele- 
ment ; and until the decomposition of these bodies 
is accomplished, and their constituents discovered, 
all- pretensions to such conversions deserve no 
notice. 

Mr. Brown of Edinburgh thought he had con- 
verted iron into rhodium, and carbon or paracya- 
nogen into silicon. His paper upon this subject 
was published in the Transactions of the Royal 
Society of Edinburgh, and contained internal evi- 
dence, without a repetition of his experiments, 
that he was totally unacquainted with the princi- 
ples of chemical analysis. But his experiments 
have been carefully repeated by qualified persons, 
and they have completely proved his ignorance : 
his rhodium is iron, and his silicon an impure in- 
combustible coal. 



64 LETTERS ON CHEMISTRY 



LETTER VI. 

My dear sir : One of the most remarkable 
effects of the recent progress of science is the 
alliance of chemistry with physiology, by which 
a new and unexpected light has been thrown upon 
the vital processes of plants and animals. We 
have now no longer any difficulty in understanding 
the different actions of aliments, poisons, and re- 
medial agents — we have a clear conception of the 
causes of hunger, of the exact nature of death ; 
and we are not, as formerly, obliged to content our- 
selves with a mere description of their symptoms. 
It is now ascertained with positive certainty, that 
all the substances which constitute the food of 
man must be divided into two great classes, one 
of which serves for the nutrition and reproduction 
of the animal body, while the other ministers to 
quite different purposes. Thus starch, gum, sugar, 
beer, wine, spirits, (fee, furnish no element capable 
of entering into the composition of blood, muscular 
fibre, or any part which is the seat of the vital 
principle. It must surely be universally interest- 
ing to trace the great change our views have 



ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 65 

undergone upon these subjects, as well as to be- 
come acquainted with the researches from which 
our present knowledge is derived. 

The primary conditions of the maintenance of 
animal life, are a constant supply of certain mat- 
ters, animal food, and of oxygen, in the shape of 
atmospheric air. During every moment of lifcj 
oxygen is absorbed from the atmosphere in the 
organs of respiration, and the act of breathing can 
not cease while life continues. 

The observations of physiologists have demon- 
strated that the body of an adult man supplied 
abundantly with food neither increases nor dimin- 
ishes in weight during twenty-four hours, and yet 
the quantity of oxygen absorbed into his system, 
in that period, is very considerable. According 
to the experiments of Lavoisier, an adult man 
takes into his system from the atmosphere, in one 
year, no less than 746 pounds weight of oxygen ; 
the calculations of Menzies make the quantity 
amount even to 837 pounds ; but we find his 
weight at the end of the year either exactly the 
same, or differing one way or other by at most a 
few pounds. What, it may be asked, has become 
of the enormous amount of oxygen thus introduced 
into the human system in the course of one year ? 
We can answer this question satisfactorily. No 
part of the oxygen remains in the body, but is 

6* 



Hi) LETTERS ON CHEMISTRY. 

given out again, combined with carbon and hydro 
gen. The carbon and hydrogen of certain parta 
of the animal body combine with the oxygen in- 
troduced through the kmgs and skin, and pass off 
in the forms of carbonic acid and vapor of water. 
At every expiration and every moment of life, a 
certain amount of its elements are separated from 
the animal organism, having entered into combi- 
nation with the oxygen of the atmosphere. 

In order to obtain a basis for an approximate 
calculation, we may assume, with Lavoisier and 
Seguin, that an adult man absorbs into his system 
32^ ounces of oxygen daily — that is, 46,037 cubic 
inches = 15,661 grains, French weight; and fur- 
ther, that the weight of the whole mass of his blood 
is 24 pounds, of which 80 per cent, is water. Now, 
from the known composition of the blood, we know 
that in order to convert its whole amount of car- 
bon and hydrogen into carbonic acid and water 
64.102 grains of oxygen are required. This 
quantity will be taken into the system in four days 
and five hours. Whether the oxygen enters into 
combination directly with the elements of tho 
blood, or with the carbon and hydrogen of other 
parts of the body, it follows inevitably — the weight 
of the body remaining unchanged and in a nor- 
mal condition — that as much of these elements as 
will suffice to supply 24 pounds of blood, must be 



OXYGEN AND CARBON. 67 

taken into the system in four days and five hours ; 
and this necessary amount is furnished by the food. 

We have not, however, remained satisfied with 
mere approximation : we have determined accu- 
rately, in certain cases, the quantity of carbon taken 
daily in the food, and of that which passes out of 
the body in the faeces and urine combined — that 
is, uncombined with oxygen ; and from these in- 
vestigations it appears that an adult man, taking 
moderate exercise, consumes ISj^^ ounces of car- 
bon, which pass off through the skin and lungs as 
carbonic acid gas.* 

It requires 37 ounces of oxygen to convert 
13j^Q of carbon into carbonic acid. Again : ac- 
cording to the analysis of Boussingault (Annales 
de Chim. et de Phys., Ixx. i., p. 136), a horse 
consumes 79 j^^ ounces of carbon in twenty-four 
hours, a milch cow 70| ounces ; so that the horse 

* This account is deduced from observations made upon 
the averas:e daily consumption of about 30 soldiers in bar- 
racks. The food of these men, consisting of meat, bread, 
potatoes, lentiles, peas, beans, butter, salt, pepper, &c., 
was accurately weighed during a month, and each article 
subjected to ultimate analysis. Of the quantity of food, 
beer, and spirits, taken by the men when out of barracks, 
we have a close approximation from the report of the ser- 
geant ; and from the weight and analysis of the faeces and 
urine, it appears that the carbon which passes off through 
these channels may be considered equivalent to the amount 
taken in that portion of the food, and of sour-crout, which 
was not included in the estimate. 



68 LETTERS ON CHEMISTRY. 

requires 13 pounds 3 J ounces, and the cow 11 
pounds iO| ounces of oxygen.* 

As no part of the oxygen taken into the system 
of an animal is given off in ai y other form than 
combined with carbon or hydrogen, and as in a 
normal condition, or state of health, the carbon 
and hydrogen so given off are replaced by those 
elements in the food, it is evident that the amount 
of nourishment required by an animal for its sup- 
port must be in a direct ratio with the quantity of 
oxygen taken into its system. Two animals which 
in equal times take up by means of the lungs and 
skin unequal quantities of oxygen, consume an 
amount of food unequal in the same ratio. The 
consumption of oxygen in a given time may be 
expressed by the number of respirations ; it is 
therefore obvious, that in the same animal the 
quantity of nourishment required must vary with 
the force and number of respirations. A child 
breathes quicker than an adult, and consequently 
"equires food more frequently and proportionably 
m larger quantity, and bears hunger less easily. 
A bird deprived of food dies on the third day, 
while a serpent, confined under a bell, respires so 
slowly that the quantity of carbonic acid genera- 
ted in an hour can scarcely be observed, and it 
will live three months, or longer, without food, 

• 16 ounces=| kilogramme. 



BALANCE OF OXYGEN AND CARBON. 69 

fhe number of respirations is fewer in a state of 
rest than during labor or exercise ; the quantity 
of food necessary in both cases must be in the 
same ratio. An excess of food, a want of a due 
amount of respired oxygen, or of exercise, as also 
great exercise (which obliges us to take an in- 
creased supply of food), together with weak or- 
gans of digestion, are incompatible with health. 

But the quantity of oxygen received by an ani- 
mal through the lungs not only depends upon the 
number of respirations, but also upon the tempera- 
ture of the respired air. The size of the thorax 
of an animal is unchangeable ; we may therefore 
regard the volume of air which enters at every in- 
spiration as uniform. But its weight, and conse- 
quently the amount of oxygen it contains, is not 
constant. Air is expanded by heat, and contracted 
by cold — an equal volume of hot and cold air con- 
tains, therefore, an unequal amount of oxygen. In 
summer, atmospheric air contains water in the form 
of vapor ; it is nearly deprived of it in winter. 
The volume of oxygen in the same volume of air 
is smaller in summer than in winter. In summer 
and winter, at the pole and at the equator, we in- 
spire an equal volume of air ; the cold air is warmed 
during respiration, and acquires the temperature 
of the body. In order, therefore, to introduce into 
the lungs a given amount of oxygen, less expendi 



70 LETTERS ON CHEMISTRY. 

ture of force is necessary in winter than in sum- 
mer, and for the same expenditure of force more 
oxygen is inspired in winter. It is also obvious that 
in an equal number of respirations we consume more 
oxygen at the level of the sea than on a mountain* 

The oxygen taken into the system is given out 
again in the same form, both in summer and win- 
ter ; we expire more carbon at a low than at a 
high temperature, and require more or less carbon 
in our food in the same proportion ; and conse- 
quently more is respired in Sweden than in Sicily, 
and in our own country an eighth more in winter 
than in summer. Even if an equal weight of food 
is consumed in hot and cold climates. Infinite Wis- 
dom has ordained that very unequal proportions of 
carbon shall be taken in it. The food prepared 
for the inhabitants of southern clirjes does not 
contain in a fresh state more than 12 per cent, of 
carbon, while the blubber and train oil which feed 
the inhabitants of polar regions contain 66 to 80 
per cent, of that element. 

From the same cause it is comparatively easy to 
be temperate in warm climates, oi to bear hunger 
for a long time under the equator ; but cold and 
hunger united very soon produce exhaustion. 

The oxygen of the atmosphere received into the 
blood in the lungs, and circulated throughout ev- 
ery part of the animal body, acting upon the ele- 
ments of the food, is the source of animal heat. 



SOURCE OF ANIMAL HEAT. 71 



LETTER VII. 

My dear sir : The source of animal heat, its 
laws, and the influence it exerts upon the func- 
tions of the animal body, constitute a curious and 
highly interesting subject, to which I would now 
direct your attention. 

All living creatures, whose existence depends 
upon the absorption of oxygen, possess within 
themselves a source of heat, independent of sur- 
rounding objects. 

This general truth applies to all animals, and 
extends to the seed of plants in the act of ger- 
mination, to flower-buds when developing, and 
fruits during their maturation. 

In the animal body, heat is produced only in 
those parts to which arterial blood, and with it the 
oxygen absorbed in respiration, is conveyed. 
Hair, wool, and feathers, receive no arterial blood, 
and therefore in them no heat is developed. The 
combination of a combustible substance M'ith oxy- 
gen is, under all circumstances, the only source 
of animal heat. In w^hatever way carbon may 
combine with oxygen, the act of combination is 



72 LETTERS ON CHEMISTRY. 

accompanied by the disengagement of heat. It is 
indifferent whether this combination takes place 
rapidly or slowly, at a high or at a low tempera- 
ture ; the amomit of heat liberated is a constant 
quantity. 

The carbon of the food being converted into car- 
bonic acid within the body, must give out exactly 
as much heat as if it had been directly burnt in 
oxygen gas or in common air ; the only difference 
is, the production of the heat is diffused over un- 
equal times. In oxygen gas the combustion of 
carbon is rapid, and the heat intense ; in atmo 
spheric air it bums slower and for a longer time, 
the temperature being lower ; . in the animal body 
the combination is still more gradual, and the heat 
is lower in proportion. 

It is obvious that the amount of heat liberated 
must increase or diminish with the quantity of 
oxygen introduced in equal times by respiration. 
Those animals therefore which respire frequently, 
and consequently consume much oxygen, possess 
a higher temperature than others, which, with a 
body of equal size to be heated, take into the sys- 
tem less oxygen. The temperature of a child 
(102°) is higher than that of an adult (99.5°). 
That of birds (104° to 105.4°) is higher than that 
of quadrupeds (98.5° to 100.4°) or than that of 
fishes or amphibia,whose proper temperature is from 



LOSS AND SUPPLY OF ANIMAL HEAT. 73 

2.7° to 3.6*^ higher than that of the medium in 
which they live. All animals, strictly speaking, 
are warm-blooded ; but in those only which pos- 
sess lungs is the temperature of the body quite 
independent of the surrounding medium. 

The most trustworthy observations prove that in 
all climates, in the temperate zones, as well as at 
the equator or the poles, the temperature of the 
body in man, and in what are commonly called 
warm-blooded animals, is invariably the same ; 
yet how different are the circumstances under 
which they live ! 

The animal body is a heated mass, which bears 
the same relation to surrounding objects as any 
other heated mass. It receives heat when the 
surrounding objects are hotter, it loses heat when 
they are colder than itself. 

We know that the rapidity of cooling increases 
with the difference between the temperature of th« 
heated body and that of the surrounding medium ; 
that is, the colder the surrounding medium the 
shorter the time required for the cooling of the 
heated body. 

How unequal, then, must be the loss of heat in 
a man at PaLrmo, where the external temperature 
is nearly equal to that of the body, and in the polar 
legions, where the external temperature is froic 
70 to 90 degrees lower ! 

7 



74 LKTTERS ON CHEMISTRY. 

Yet, notwithstanding this extremely unequal 
loss of heat, experience has shown that the blood 
of the inhabitant of the arctic circle has a tempera- 
ture as high as that of the native of the south, who 
lives in so different a medium. 

This fact, when its true significance is perceiv- 
ed, proves that the heat gi\en off to the surround- 
ing medium is restored within the body with great 
rapidity. This compensation must consequently 
take place more rapidly in winter than in summer, 
at the pole than at the equator. 

Now, in different climates the quantity of oxy- 
gen introduced into the system by respiration, as 
has been already shown, varies according to the 
temperature of the external air ; the quantity of 
inspired oxygen increases with the loss of heat by 
external cooling, and the quantity of carbon or 
hydrogen necessary to combine with this oxygen 
must be increased in the same ratio. 

It is evident that the supply of the heat lost by 
cooling is effected by the mutual action of the ele- 
ments of the food and the inspired oxygen, which 
combine together. T« make use of a familiar, 
but not on that account a less just illustration, the 
animal body acts, in this respect, as a furnace, 
which we supply with fuel. It signifies nothing 
what intermediate forms food may assun^e, what 
changes it may undergo in the body, the last 



LOSS AND SUPPLY OF ANIMAL HEAT: 75 

change is uniformly the conversion of its carbon 
Tito carbonic acid, and of its hydrogen into water. 
The unassiniilated nitrogen of the food, along with 
he unburned or unoxidized carbon, is*expelled in 
the urine or in the solid excrements. In order to 
keep up in the furnace a constant temperature, we 
must vary the supply of fuel according to the ex- 
ternal temperature, that is, according to the supply 
of oxygen. 

In the animal body the food is the fuel ; with a 
proper supply of oxygen we obtain the heat given 
out during its c»xidation or combustion. In winter, 
when we take exercise in a cold atmosphere, and 
when consequently the amount of inspired oxygen 
increases, the necessity for food containing carbon 
and hydrogen increases in the same ratio ; and by 
gratifying the appetite thus excited, we obtain the 
most efficient protection against the most piercing 
cold. A starving man is soon frozen to death. 
The animals of prey in the arctic regions, as every 
one knows, far exceed in voracity those of the tor- 
rid zone. 

In cold and temperate climates, the air, which 
incessantly strives to consume the body, urges man 
to laboiious efforts in order to furnish the means 
of resistance to its action, while, in hot climates, the 
necessity of labor to provide food is far less urgent. 

Our clothing is merely an equivalent for a cer- 



76 LETTERS ON CHEMISTRY. 

tain amount of food. The more warmly we aie 
clothed the less urgent becomes the appetite for 
food, because the loss of heat by cooling, and con- 
sequently the amount of heat to be supplied by the 
food; is diminished. 

If we were to go naked, like certain savage 
tribes, or if in hunting or fishing we were exposed 
to the same degree of cold as the Samoyedes, we 
should be able with ease to consume 10 pounds of 
flesh, and perhaps a dozen of tallow candles into 
the bargain, daily, as warmly clad travellers have 
related with astonishment of these people. We 
should then also be able to take the same quantity 
of brandy or train oil without bad effects, because 
the carbon and hydrogen of these substances would 
only suffice to keep up the equilibrium between 
the external temperature and that of our bodies. 

According to the preceding expositions, the 
quantity of food is regulated by the number of 
respirations, by the temperature of the air, and by 
the amount of heat given off to the surrounding 
medium. 

No isolated fact, apparently opposed to this 
statement, can affect the truth of this natural law. 
Without temporary or permanent injury to health, 
the Neapolitan can not take more carbon and hy- 
drogen in the shape of food than he expires as 
<;arbonic acid and water ; and the Esquimaux can 



INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE ON HEALTH. 77 

not expire more carbon and hydrogen than he takes 
into the system as food, unless in a state of disease 
or of starvation. Let us examine these states a 
little more closely. 

The Englishman in Jamaica perceives with re- 
gret the disappearance of his appetite, previously a 
source of frequently recurring enjoyment ; and he 
succeeds by the use of cayenne pepper and the 
most powerful stimulants, in enabling himself to 
take as much food as he was accustomed to eat at 
home. But the whole of the carbon thus intro- 
duced into the system is not consumed ; the tem- 
perature of the air is too high, and the oppressive 
heat does not allow him to increase the number of 
respirations by active exercise, and thus to pro- 
portion the waste to the amount of food taken ; 
disease of some kind, therefore, ensues. 

On the other hand, England sends her sick lo 
southern regions, where the amount of the oxygen 
inspired is diminished in a very 1? -ge proportion. 
Those whose diseased digestive oi-^ai.s 'lave in a 
greater or less degree lost the powei of bringing 
the food into the state best adapted for oxidation, 
and therefore are less able to resist the oxidising 
influence of the atmosphere of their native climate, 
obtain a great improvement in health. The dis- 
eased organs of digestion have power to place the 
diminished amount of food in equilibrium with the 
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78 LETTERS ON CHEMISTRY. 

inspired oxygen, in the mild climate ; while in a 
colder region the organs of respiration themselves 
would have been consumed in furnishing the ne- 
cessary resistance to the action of the atmospheric 
oxygen. 

In c :r climate, hepatic diseases, or those arising 
fror:. excess of carbon, prevail in summer; in win- 
tei, pulmonary diseases, or those arising from ex- 
cess of oxygen are more frequent. 

The cooling of the body, by whatever cause it 
may be produced, increases the amount of food 
necessary. The mere exposure to the open air, in 
a carriage or on the deck of a ship, by increasing 
radiation and vaporisation, increases the loss of 
heat, and compels us to eat more than usual. The 
same is true of those who are accustomed to drink 
large quantities of cold water, which is given off at 
the temperature of the body, 98.5 degrees. It in- 
creases the appetite, and persons of weak consti- 
tution find i; necessary, by continued exercise, to 
supply to the .system the oxygen required to restore 
the heat abstracted by the cold water. Loud and 
long continued speaking, the crying of infants, 
moist air, all exert a decided and appreciable influ- 
ence on the amount of food which is taken. 

We have assumed that it is especially carbon 
and hydrogen which, by combining with oxygen, 
serve to produce animal heat. In fact, observa- 



THE FUEL OF ANIMAL HFAT. 79 

tion proves that the hydrogen of the food plays a 
not less important part than the carbon. 

The whole process of respiration appears most 
clearly developed, when we consider the state of 
a man, or other animal, totally deprived of food. 

The first effect of starvation is the disappearance 
of fat, and this fat can not be traced either in the 
urine or in the scanty faeces. Its carbon and hy- 
drogen have been given off through the skin and 
lungs in the form of oxidized products ; it is ob- 
vious that they have served to support respiration. 

In the case of a starving man, 32^ oz. of oxygen 
enter the system daily, and are given out again in 
combination with a part of his body, Currie men- 
tions the case of an individual who was unable to 
swallow, and whose body lost 100 lbs. in weight 
during a mo5ith ; and, according to Martell (Trans. 
Linn. Soc, vol. xi., p. 41 1), a fat pig, overwhelmed 
in a slip of earth, lived 160 days without food, and 
was found to have diminished in weight, in that 
time, more than 120 lbs. The whole history of 
hybernating animals, and the well-established facts 
of the periodical accumulation, in various animals, 
of fat which, at other periods, entirely disappears, 
prove that the oxygen, in the respiratory process, 
consumes, without exception, all such substances 
as are capable of entering into combination with 
it. It combines with whatever is presented to it ; 



80 LETTERS ON CHEMISTRY. 

and the deficiency of hydrogen is the only reason 
why carbonic acid is the chief product ; for, at the 
temperature o( the body, the affinity of hydrogen 
for oxygen far surpasses that of carbon for the 
same element. 

We know, in fact, that the graminivora expire a 
volume of carbonic acid equal to that of the oxygen 
inspired, while the carnivora, the only class of 
animals whose food contains fat, inspire more oxy- 
gen than is equal in volume to the carbonic acid 
expired. Exact experiments have shown, that in 
many cases only half the volume of oxygen is 
expired in the form of carbonic acid. These ob- 
servations can not be gainsaid, a'>d nrc far more 
convincing than those arbitrary and artificially 
produced phenomena, sometimes caHed experi- 
ments ; experiments which, made as too of-^en they 
are, without regard to the necessary and natural 
conditions, possess no value, and may be entirely 
dispensed with ; especially when, as in the present 
case, nature affords the opportunity for ob.'-^rva- 
tion, and when we make a rational use of that 
opportunity. 

In the progress of starvation, however, it is not 
only the fat which disappears, but also, by degrees, 
all such of the solids as are capable of being <]^s- 
solved. In the wasted bodies of those who h&"e 
suffered starvation, the muscles are shrunk ai'i 



AGENCY OF OXYGEN IN DISEASE. 81 

unnaturally soft, and have lost their contractility ; 
all those parts of the body which were capable of 
entering into the state of motion have served to 
protect the remainder of the frame from the de- 
structive influence of the atmosphere. Toward the 
end, the particles of the brain begin to undergo 
the process of oxidation, and delirium, mania, and 
death close the scene ; that is to say, all resistance 
to the oxidising power of the atmospheric oxygen 
ceases, and the chemical process of eremacausis, 
or decay, commences, in which every part of the 
body, the bones excepted, enters into combination 
with oxygen. 

The time which is required to cause death by 
starvation depends on the amount of fat in the 
body, on the degree of exercise, as in labor or 
exertion of any kind, on the temperature of the 
air, and finally, on the presence or absence of 
water. Through the skin and lungs there escapes 
a certain quantity of water, and as the presence of 
water is essential to the continuance of the vital 
motions, its dissipation hastens death. Cases have 
occurred, in which a full supply of water being 
accessible to the sufferer, death has not occurred 
till after the lapse of twenty days. In one case, 
Lfe was sustained in this way for the period of 
sixty days. 

In all chronic diseases death is produced by the 



82 LETTERS ON CHEMISTRY. 

same cause, namely, the chemical action of the 
atmosphere. When those substances are wanting; 
whose function in the organism is to support the 
process of respiration ; when the diseased organs 
are incapable of performing their proper function 
of producing these substances ; when they have 
lost the power of transforming the food into that 
shape in which it may, by entering into combina- 
tion with the oxygen of the air, protect the system 
from its influence, then, the substance of the or- 
gans themselves, the fat of the body, the substance 
of the muscles, the nerves, and the brain, are un- 
avoidably consumed. The true cause of death in 
these cases is the respiratory process, that is, the 
action of the atmosphere. 

A deficiency of food, and a want of power to 
convert the food into a part of the organism, are 
both, equally, a want of resistance ; and this is the 
negative cause of the cessation of the vital process. 
The flame is extinguished, because the oil is con- 
sumed ; and it is the oxygen of the air which has 
consumed it. 

In many diseases substances are produced which 
are incapable of assimilation. By the mere depri- 
vation of food, these substances are removed from 
the body without leaving a trace behind ; their 
elements have entered into combination with the 
oxygen of the air. 



RESPIRATION. 83 

From the first moment that the function of the 
hmgs or of the skin is interrupted or disturbed, 
compounds, rich in carbon, appear in the urine, 
which acquires a brown color. Over the whole 
surface of the body oxygen is absorbed, and com- 
bines with all the substances which offer no re- 
sistance to it. In those parts of the body where 
the access of oxygen is impeded ; for example, in 
the arm-pits, or in the soles of the feet, peculiar 
compounds are given out, recognisable by their 
appearance, or by their odor. These compounds 
contain much carbon. 

Respiration is the falling weight — the bent 
spring, which keeps the clock in motion ; the in- 
spirations and expirations are the strokes of the 
pendulum which regulate it. In our ordinary 
time-pieces, we know with mathematical accuracy 
the effect produced on their rate of going, by 
changes in the length of the pendulum, or in the 
external temperature. Few, however, have a clear 
conception of the influence of air and temperature 
on the health of the human body ; and yet the re- 
search into the conditions necessary to keep it in 
the normal state, is not more difficult than in the 
case of a clock. 



84 LETTERS ON CHEMISTRY 



LETTER VIII. 



My dear sir : Having attempted in my last 
letter to explain to you the simple and admirable 
office subserved by the oxygen of the atmosphere 
in its combination with carbon in the animal body, 
I will now proceed to present you with some re- 
marks upon those materials which sustain its 
mechanisms in motion, and keep up their various 
functions — namely, the Aliments. 

If the increase of mass in an animal body, the 
development and reproduction of its organs depend 
upon the blood, then those substances only which 
are capable of being converted into blood can be 
properly regarded as nourishment. In order then to 
ascertain what parts of our food are nutritious, we 
must compare the composition of the blood with the 
composition of the various articles taken as food. 

Two substances require especial consideration 
as the chief ingredients of the blood ; one of these 
separates immediately from the blood when it is 
withdrawn from the circulation. 



ELEMENTS OF BLOOD. 85 

It is well known that in this case blood coagu- 
lates, and separates into a yellowish liquid, the 
serum of the blood, and a gelatinous mass, which 
adheres to a rod or stick in soft, elastic fibres, when 
coagulating blood is briskly stirred. This is the 
jibrinc of the blood, which is identical in all its 
properties with muscular fibre, when the latter is 
purified from all foreign matters. 

The second principal ingredient of the blood is 
contained in the serum, and gives to this liquid all 
the properties of the white of eggs, with which it 
is indeed identical. When heated, it coagulates 
into a white elastic mass, and the coagulating sub- 
stance is called albumen. 

Fibrine and albumen, the r^hief ingredients of 
blood, contain, in all, seven chemical elements, 
among which nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulphur, 
are found. They contain also the earth of bones. 
The serum retains in solution sea salt and other 
salts of potash and soda, in which the acids are 
carbonic, phosphoric, and sulphuric acids. The 
globules of the blood contain fibrine and albumen, 
along with a red coloring matter, in which iron 
is a constant element. Beside these, the blood 
contains certain fatty bodies in small quantity, 
which differ from ordinary fats in several of their 
properties. 

Chemical analysis has led to the remarkable 
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86 LETTERS ON CHEMISTRY. 

result, that fibrine and albumen contain the same 
organic elements united in the same proportion — 
that is, that they are isomeric, their chemical com- 
position — the proportion of their ultimate elements 
— beinff identical. But the difference of their ex- 
ternal properties shows that the particles of which 
they are composed are arranged in a different or- 
der. (See ante, page 56). 

This conclusion has lately been beautifully con- 
firmed by a distinguished physiologist (Denis), who 
has succeeded in converting fibrine into albumen ; 
that is, in giving it the solubility, and coagulability 
by heat, which characterize the white of eg^. 

Fibrine and albumen, beside having the same 
composition, agree also in this, that both dissolve in 
concentrated muriatic acid, yielding a solution of 
an intense purple color. This solution, whether 
made with fibrine or albumen, has the very same 
reactions with all substances yet tried. 

Both albumen and fibrine, in the process of nu- 
trition, are capable of being converted into mus- 
cular fibre, and muscular fibre is capable of being 
reconverted into blood. These facts have long 
been established by physiologists, and chemistry 
has merely proved that these metamorphorses can 
be accorrplished under the influence of a certain 
force, without the aid of a third substance, or of 
its elements, and without the addition of any for- 



ELEMENTS OF ANIMAL TISSUES. 87 

eign flement, or the separation of any element 
previously present in these substances. 

If we now compare the composition of all or- 
ganized parts with that of fibrine and albumen, the 
following relations present themselves : 

All parts of the animal body which have a de- 
cided shape, which form parts of organs, contain 
nitrogen. No part of an organ which possesses 
motion and life is destitute of nitrogen ; all of 
them contain likewise carbon and the elements of 
water ; the latter, however, in no case in the pro- 
portion to form water. 

The chief ingredients of the blood contain 
nearly 17 per cent, of nitrogen, and from numer- 
ous analyses it appears that no part of an organ 
contains less than 17 per cent, of nitrogen. 

The most convincing experiments and observa- 
tions have proved that the animal body is abso- 
lutely incapable of producing an elementary body, 
such as carbon or nitrogen, out of substances which 
do not contain it ; and it obviously follows, that 
all kinds of food fit for the production either of 
blood, or of cellular tissue, membranes, skin, hair, 
muscular fibre, &c., must contain a certain amount 
of nitrogen, because that element is essential to 
the composition of the above-named organs ; be- 
cause the organs can not create it from the other 
elements presented to them ; and, finally, because 



88 LETTERS ON CHEMISTRY. 

no nitrogen is absorbed from the atmosphere in 
the vital process. 

The substance of the brain and nerves contains 
a large quantity of albumen, and, in addition to this, 
two peculiar fatty acids, distinguished from other 
fats by containing phosphorus (phosphoric acid). 
One of these contains nitrogen (Fremy), 

Finally, water and common fat are those ingre- 
dients of the body which are destitute of nitrogen. 
Both are amorphous, or unorganized, and only so 
far take part in the vital process as that their pres- 
ence is required for the due performance of the 
vital functions. The inorganic constituents of the 
body are iron, lime, magnesia, common salt, and 
the alkalies. 

The nutritive process is seen in its simplest 
form in carnivorous animals. This class of animals 
lives on the blood and liesh of the graminivora ; 
but this blood and flesh are, in all their properties, 
identical with their own. Neither chemical nor 
physiological differences can be discovered. 

The nutriment of carnivorous animals is derived 
originally from blood ; in their stomach it bcco'wes 
dissolved, and capable of reaching all other parts 
of the body ; in its passage it is again converted 
into blood, und from this blood are reproduced all 
those parts of their organization which have un 
dergone change or metamorphosis. 



ELEMENTS OF NUTRITION. 89 

With the exception of hoofs, hair, feathers, and 
the earth of bones, every part of the food of car- 
nivorous animals is capable of assimilation. 

In a chemical sense, therefore, it may be said 
that a e-arnivorous animal, in supporting the vital 
process, consumes itself. That w^hich serves for 
its nutrition is identical with those parts of its or- 
ganization which are to be renewed. 

The process of nutrition in graminivorous ani- 
mals appears at first sight altogether different. 
Their digestive organs are less simple, and their 
food consists of vegetables, the great mass of 
which contains but little nitrog-en. 

From what substances, it may be asked, is the 
blood formed, by means of which their organs are 
developed ? This question may be answered with 
certainty. 

Chemical researches have shown, that all such 
parts of vegetables as can afford nutriment to ani- 
mals contain certain constituents which are rich 
in nitrogen ; and the most ordinary'' experience 
proves that animals require for their support and 
nutrition less of these parts of plants in proportion 
as they abound in the nitrogenized constituents. 
Animals can not be fed on matters destitute of 
these nitrogenized constituents. 

These important products of vegetation are espe- 
cially abundant in the seeds of the different kinds 

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90 LETTERS ON CHEMISTRY. 

of grain, and of peas, beans, and lentils ; in the 
roots and the juices of what are commonly called 
vegetables. They exist, however, in all plants, 
without exception, and in every part of plants in 
larger or smaller quantity. 

These nitrogenized forms of nutriment in the 
vegetable kingdom may be reduced to three sub- 
stances, which are easily distinguished by their 
external characters. Two of them are soluble in 
water, the third is insoluble. 

When the newly-expressed juices of vegetables 
are allowed to stand, a separation takes place in a 
few minutes. A gelatinous precipitate, commonly 
of a green tinge, is deposited, and this, when acted 
on by liquids which remove the coloring matter, 
leaves a grayish white substance, well known to 
druggists as the deposite from vegetable juices. 
This is one of the nitrogenized compounds which 
serves for the nutrition of animals, and has been 
named vegetable jihrine. The juice of grapes is 
especially rich in this constituent, but it is most 
abundant in the seeds of wheat, and of the cerealia 
generally. It may be obtained from wheat flour 
by a mechanical operation, and in a state of toler- 
able purity ; it is then called gluten, but the glu- 
tinous property belongs, not to vegetable fibrine, 
but to a foreign substance, present in small quan- 
tW, which is not found in the other cerealia. 



ELEMENTS OF NUTRITION. ' 91 

The method by which it is obtained sufficiently 
proves that it is insohible in water ; akhough we 
can not doubt that it was originally dissolved in the 
vegetable juice, from which it afterward separated, 
exactly as fibrine does from blood. 

The second nitrogenized compound remains dis- 
solved in the juice after the separation of the 
fibrioe. It does not separate from the juice at the 
ordinary temperature, but is instantly coagulated 
when the liquid containing it is heated to the 
boiling point. 

When the clarified juice of nutritious vege- 
tables, such as cauliflower, asparagus, mangel- 
wurzel, or turnips, is made to boil, a coagulum is 
formed, which it is absolutely impossible to dis- 
tinguish from the substance which separates as a 
coagulum, when the serum of blood, or the white 
of an egg, diluted with water, are heated to the 
boiling point. This is vegetable albumen. It is 
found in the greatest abundance in certain seeds, 
in nuts, almonds, and others, in which the starch 
of the gramineae is replaced by oil. 

The third nitrogenized constituent of the vege- 
table food of animals is vegetable caseine. It is 
chiefly found in the seeds of peas, beans, lentils, 
and similar leguminous seeds. Like vegetable 
albumen, it is soluble in water, but differs from it 
in this, that its solution is not coagulated by heat 



92 LETTERS ON CHEMISTRY. 

When the sokition is heated or evaporated, a skin 
forms on its surface, and the addition of an acidi 
causes a coaguhim, just as in animal milk. 

These three nitrogenized compounds, vegetable 
fibrine, albumen, and caseine, are the true nitro- 
genized constituents of the food of graminivorous 
animals ; all other nitrogenized compounds occur- 
ring in plants, are either rejected b3^ animals, as in 
the case of the characteristic principles of poisonous 
and medicinal plants, or else they occur in the food 
in such very small proportion, that they can not 
possibly contribute to the increase of mass in the 
animal body. 

The chemical analysis of these three substances 
has led to the very interesting result that they con- 
tain the same organic elements, united in the same 
proportion by weight ; and, what is still more re- 
markable, that they are identical in composition 
with the chief constituents of blood, animal fibrine, 
and albumen. They all three dissolve in concen- 
trated muriatic acid with the same deep purple 
color, and even in their physical characters, ani- 
mal fibrine and albumen are in no respect differ- 
ent from vegetable fibrine and albumen. It is 
especially to be noticed, that by the phrase, iden- 
tity of composition, we do not here intend mere 
similarity, but that even in regard to the presence 
and relative amount of sulphur, phosphorus, and 



ISOMERISM OF VEGETABLE PRINCIPLES. 93 

phosphate of lime, no difference can be observed. 
How beautifully and admirably simple, with the 
aid of these discoveries, appears the process of nu- 
trition in animals, the formation of their organs, 
in which vitality chiefly resides ! Those vegetable 
principles, which in animals are used to form 
blood, contain the chief constituents of blood, 
fibrine and albumen, ready formed, as far as re- 
gards their composition. All plants, besides, con- 
tain a certain quantity of iron, which reappears 
in the coloring matter of the blood. Vegetable 
fibrine and animal fibrine, vegetable albumen and 
animal albumen, hardly differ, even in form ; if 
these principles be wanting in the food, the nutri- 
tion of the animal is arrested ; and when they are 
present, the graminivorous animal obtains in its food 
the very same principles on the presence of which 
the nutrition of the carniA'^ora entirely depends. 

Vegetables produce in their organism the blood 
of all animals, for the carnivora, in consuming the 
blood and flesh of the graminivora, consume, 
strictly speaking, only the vegetable principles 
which have served for the nutrition of the latter. 
Vegetable fibrine and albumen take the same form 
in the stomach of the graminivorous animal as 
animal fibrine and albumen do in that of the 
carnivorous animal. 

From what has been said, it follows that the 



94 LETTERS ON CHEMISTRY. 

velopment of the animal organism and its growth 
are dependant on the reception of certain princi- 
ples identical with the chief constituents of blood. 

In this sense we may say that the animal organ- 
ism gives to blood only its form ; that it is incapa- 
ble of creating blood out of other substances which 
do not already contain the chief constituents of that 
fluid. We can not, indeed, maintain, that the animal 
organism has no power to form other compounds, 
for we know that it is capable of producing an 
extensive series of compounds, differing in com- 
position from the chief constituents of blood ; but 
these last, which form the starting-point of the 
series, it can not produce. 

The animal organism is a higher kind of vege- 
table, the development of which begins with those 
substances with the production of which the life 
of an ordinary vegetable ends. As soon as the 
latter has borne seed, it dies, or a period of its life 
comes to a termination. 

In that endless series of compounds, which 
begins with carbonic acid, ammonia, and water, 
the sources of the nutrition of vegetables, and in- 
cludes the most complex constituents of the animal 
brain, there is no blank, no interruption. The 
first substance capable of affording nutriment to 
animals is the last product of the creative energy 
of vegetables. 



RELATION OF VEGETABLE AND ANIMAl 95 

The substance of cellular tissue and of mem- 
branes, of the brain and nerves, these the vegeta- 
ble can not produce. 

The seemingly miraculous in the productive 
agency of vegetables disappears in a great degree, 
vi^hen we reflect that the production of the consti- 
tuents of blood can not appear more surprising 
thsCn the occurrence of the fat of beef and mutton 
in cocoa beans, of human fat in oliv«-oil, of the 
principal ingredient of butter in palm oil, and of 
horse fat and train-oil in certain oily seeds. 



96 LETTERS ON CHEMISTRY 



LETTER IX. 

My dear sir : The facts detailed in my last 
letter will satisfy you as to the manner in which 
the increase of mass in an animal, that is its growth, 
is accomplished ; we have still to consider a most 
important question, namely, the function perform- 
ed in the animal system by substances destitute of 
nitrogen ; such as sugar, starch, gum, pectine, &;c. 

The most extensive class of animals, the grami- 
nivora, can not live without these substances ; their 
food must contain a certain amount of one or more 
of them, and if these compounds are not supplied, 
death quickly ensues. 

This important inquiry extends also to the con- 
stituents of the food of carnivorous animals in the 
earliest periods of life ; for this food also contains 
substances which are not necessary for their 
support in the adult state. The nutrition of the 
young of carnivora is obviously accomplished by 
means similar to those by which the graminivora 
are nourished ; their development Is dependant on 



USES OF BUTTER AND MILR. 97 

the suppl}' of a fluid, which the body of the moth- 
er secretes in the shape of milk. 

Milk contains only one nitrogenised constituent, 
known under the name of caseine : besides this, its 
chief ingredients are butter (fat), and sugar of 
milk. The blood of the young animal, its muscu- 
lar fibre, cellular tissue, nervous matter, and bones, 
'must have derived their origin from the nitrogen- 
ised constituent of milk — the caseine ; for butter 
and sugar of milk contain no nitrogen. 

Now, the analysis of caseine has led to the re- 
sult, which, after the details I have gi^'^en, can 
hardly excite your surprise, that this substance 
also is identical in composition with the chief 
constituents of blood, fibrine and albumen. Nay 
more — a comparison of its properties with those 
of vegetable caseine has shown — that these two 
substances are identical in all their properties ; 
insomuch, that certain plants, such as peas, beans, 
and lentils, are capable of producing the same sub- 
stance which is formed from the blood of the 
mother, and employed in yielding the blood of the 
young animal. 

The young animal, therefore, receives, in the 
form of caseine — which is distinguished from fi- 
brine and albumen by its great solubility, and by 
not coagulating when heated — the chief constituent 
of the mother's blood. To convert caseine into 
9 



98 LETTERS ON CHEMISTRY. 

blood no foreign substance is required, and in tiu 
conversion of the motber's blood into caseine, no 
elements of the constituents of the blood have been 
separated. When chemically examined, caseine 
is found to contain a much larger proportion of the 
earth of bones than blood does, and that in a very 
soluble form, capable of reaching every part of the 
body. Thus, even in the earliest period of its life, 
the developjnent of the organs, in which vitality 
resides, is, in the carnivorous animal, dependant 
on the supply of a substance, identical in organic 
composition with the chief constituents of its blood. 

What, then, is the use of the butter and the su- 
gar of milk ? How does it happen that these sub- 
stances are indispensable to life 1 

Butter and sugar of milk contain no fixed bases, 
no soda or potash. Sugar of milk has a composition 
closely allied to that of the other kinds of sugar, 
of starch, and of gum ; all of them contain carbon 
and the elements of water, the latter precisely in 
the proportion to form water. 

There is added, therefore, by means of these 
compounds, to the nitrogenized constituents of 
food, a certain amount of carbon ; or, as in the 
case of butter, of carbon and hydrogen ; that is, 
an excess of elements, which car not possibly be 
employed in the production of blood, because the 
nitrogenized substances contained in the food al 



ANIMAL HEAT. 99 

ready contain exactly the amount of carbon which 
is required for the production of fibrine and albu- 
men. 

The following considerations will show that 
hardly a doubt can be entertained, that this excess 
of carbon alone, or of carbon and hydrogen, is ex- 
pended in the production of animal heat, and serves 
to protect the organism from the action of the at- 
mospheric oxygen, which is required for the pro- 
duction of fibrine and albumen. 

In an adult carnivorous animal, which neither 
gains nor loses weight, perceptibly, from day to 
day, its nourishment, the waste of organized tissue, 
and its consumption of oxygen, stand to each other 
in a well-defined and fixed relation. 

The carbon of the carbonic acid given off, with 
that of the urine ; the nitrogen of the urine, and 
the hydrogen given off as ammonia and water ; 
these elements, taken together, must be exactly 
equal in weight to the carbon, nitrogen, and hy- 
drogen of the metamorphosed tissues, and since 
these last are exactly replaced by the food, to the 
carbon, nitrogen, and hydrogen of the food. Were 
this not the case, the weight of the animal could 
not possibly remain unchanged. 

But, in the young of the carnivora, the weight 
does not remain unchanged ; on the contrary, it in- 
creases from day to day by an appreciable quantity. 



100 LETTERS ON CHEMISTRY. 

This fact presupposes, that the assimilative pro- 
cess in the young animal is more energetic, more 
intense, than the process of transformation in the 
existing tissues. If both processes were equally 
active, the weight of the body could not increase ; 
and were the waste by transformation greater, the 
weight of the body would decrease. 

Now, the circulation in the young animal is not 
weaker, but, on the contrary, more rapid ; the res- 
pirations are more frequent ; and, for equal bulks, 
the consumption of oxygen must be greater rather 
than smaller in the young than in the adult animal. 
But, since the metamorphosis of organized parts 
goes on more slowly, there would ensue a deficiency 
of those substances, the carbon and hydrogen of 
which are adapted for combination with oxygen , 
because, in the carnivora, it is the new compounds, 
produced by the metamorphosis of organized parts, 
which nature has destined to furnish the necessa- 
ry resistance to the action of the oxygen, and to 
produce animal heat. What is wanting for these 
purposes an Infinite Wisdom has supplied to the 
young animal in its natural food. 

The carbon and hydrogen of butter, and the 
carbon of the sugar of milk, no part of either of 
which can yield blood, fibrine, or albumen, are 
destined for the. support of the respiratory process, 
at an age when a greater resistance is opposed to 



METAMORPHOSES OF TISSUES. 101 

the metamorphosis of existing organisms ; or, in 
other words, to the production of compounds, 
which, in the adult state, are produced in quantity 
amply sufficient for the purpose of respiration. 

The young animal receives the constituents of 
its blood in the caseine of the milk. A metamor- 
phosis of existing organs goes on, for bile and urine 
are secreted ; the matter of the metamorphosed 
parts is given off in the form of urine, of carbonic 
acid, and of water ; but the butter and sugar of 
milk also disappear ; they can not be detected in 
the fseces. 

The butter and sugar of milk are given out in 
the form of carbonic acid and water, and their 
conversion into oxidized products furnishes the 
clearest proof that far more oxygen is absorbed 
than is required to convert the carbon and hydro- 
gen of the metamorphosed tissues into carbonic 
acid and water. 

The change and metamorphosis of organized 
tissues going on in the vital process in the young 
animal, consequently yield, in a given time, much 
less carbon and hydrogen in the form adapted for 
the respiratory process than corresponds to the 
oxygen taken up in the lungs. The substance of 
its organized parts would undergo a more rapid 
consumption, and would necessarily yield to the 
action of the oxygen, were not the deficiency 

9* 



102 LETTERS ON CHEMISTRY. 

of carbon aiid hydrogen supplied from another 
source. 

The continued increase of mass, or growth, and 
the free and unimpeded development of the organs 
in the young animal, are dependant on the pres- 
ence of foreign substances, which, in the nutritive 
process, have no other function than to protect the 
newly-formed organs from the action of the oxy- 
gen. It is the elements of these substances which 
unite with the oxygen ; the organs themselves 
could not do so without being consumed ; that is, 
growth, or increase of mass in the body — the con- 
sumption of oxygen remaining the same — would 
be utterly impossible. 

The preceding considerations leave no doubt as 
to the purpose for which Nature has added to the 
food of the young of carnivorous mammalia sub- 
stances devoid of nitrogen, which their organism 
can not employ for nutrition, strictly so called, that 
is, for the production of blood ; substances which 
may be entirely dispensed with in their nourish- 
ment in the adult state. In the young of carnivo- 
rous birds, the want of all motion is an obvious 
cause of diminished waste in the organized parts ; 
hence, milk is not provided for them. 

The nutritive process in the carnivora thus pre- 
sents itself under two distinct forms ; one of which 
we again meet with in the ^raminivora. 



FOOD OF THK HORSE. 103 

In graminivorous animals, we observe that du- 
ring tlieir whole life, their existence depends on 
a supply of substances having a composition iden- 
tical with that of sugar of milk, or closely resem- 
bling it. Everything that they consume as food 
contains a certain quantity of starch, gum, or su- 
gar, mixed with other matters. 

The function performed in the vital process of 
the graminivora by these substances is indicated 
in a very clear and convincing manner, when we 
take into consideration the very small relative 
amount of the carbon which these animals con- 
sume in the nitrogenized constituents of their food, 
which bears no proportion whatever to the oxygen 
absorbed through the skin and lungs. 

A horse, for example, can be kept in perfectly 
good condition, if he obtain as food 15 lbs. of hay 
and 4^ lbs. of oats, daily. If we now calculate the 
whole amount of nitrogen in these matters, as 
ascertained by analysis (1.5 per cent, in the hay, 
2.2 per cent, in the oats), in the form of blood, that 
is, as fibrine and albumen, with the due proportion 
of water in blood (80 per cent.), the horse receives 
daily no more than 4 J oz. of nitrogen, correspcnd- 
ing to about 8 lbs. of blood. But along with this 
nitrogen, that is, combined with it in the form of 
fibrine or albumen, the animal receives only about 
14^ oz. of carbon. 



104 LETTERS 0\ CHEMISTRY. 

Without going further into the calculation, it 
will readily be admitted, that the volume of air in- 
spired and expired by ahorse, the quantity of oxy- 
gen consumed, and, as a necessary consequence, 
the amount of carbonic acid given out by the ani- 
mal, is much greater than in the respiratory process 
in man. But an adult man consumes daily about 
14 oz. of carbon, and the determination of Bous- 
singault, according to which a horse expires 79 
oz. daily, can not be very far from the truth. 

In the nitrogenized constituents of his food, 
therefore, the horse receives rather less than the 
fifth part of the carbon which his organism re- 
quires for the support of the respiratory process ; 
and we see that the wisdom of the Creator has 
•added to his food the |ths which are wanting, in 
various forms as, starch, sugar, &c., with which 
the animal must be supplied, or his organism will 
be destroyed by the action of the oxygen. 

It is obvious, that, in the system of the grami- 
nivora, whose food contains so small a portion, 
relatively, of the constituents of blood, the process 
of metamorphosis in existing tissues, and conse- 
quently their restoration or reproduction, must go 
on far less rapidly than in the carnivora. Were 
this not the case, a vegetation a thousand times 
more luxuriant than the actual one would not suf- 
fice for their nourishment. Sugar, gum, and starch, 



FOOD OF CARNIVORA. 106 

would no longer be necessary to support life in 
these animals, because, in that case, the products 
of the waste, or metamorphosis of the organized 
tissues, would contain enough of carbon to support 
the respiratory process. 



106 LETTERS ON CHEMISTRY. 



LETTER X. 

My dear sir : Let me now apply the princi- 
ples announced in the preceding letters to the 
circumstances of our own species. Man, when 
confined to animal food, requires for his support 
and nourishment extensive sources of food, even 
more widely extended than the lion and tiger, be- 
cause, when he has the opportunity, he kills with- 
out eating. 

A nation of hunters, on a limited space, is Ut- 
terly incapable of increasing its numbers beyond a 
certain point, which is soon attained. The carbon 
necessary for respiration must be obtained from 
the animals, of which only a limited number can 
live on the space supposed. These animals col- 
lect from plants the constituents of their organs 
and of their blood, and yield them, in turn, to the 
savages who live by the chase alone. They, again, 
receive this food unaccompanied by those com- 
pounds, destitute of nitrogen, which, during the 
life of the animals, served to support the respira- 
tory process. In such men, confined to an animal 



APPLICATION TO MAN 107 

diet, it is the carbon of the flesh and of the blood 
which must take the place of starch and sugar. 

But 15 lbs. of flesh contain no more carbon 
than 4 lbs. of starch, and while the savage with 
one animal and an equal weight of starch could 
maintain life and health for a certain number of 
days, he would be compelled, if confined to flesh 
alone, in order to procure the carbon necessary 
for respiration, during the same time, to consume 
five such animals. 

It is easy to see, from these considerations, how 
close the connexion is between agriculture and 
the multiplication of the human species. The 
cultivation of our crops has ultimately no other 
object than the production of a maximum of those 
substances which are adapted for assimilation and 
respiration, in the smallest possible space. Grain 
and other nutritious vegetables yield us, not only 
in starch, sugar, and gum, ihe carbon which pro- 
tects our organs from the action of oxygen, and 
produces in the organism the heat which is essen- 
tial to life, but also in the form of vegetable fibrine, 
albumen, and caseine, our blood, from which the 
other parts of our body are developed. 

Man, when confined to animal food, respires, like 
the carnivora, at the expense of the matters pro- 
duced by the metamorphosis of organized tissues ; 
and, just as the lion, tiger, hysena, in the cages of 



108 LETTERS ON CHEMISTRY. 

a menagerie, are compelled to accelerate the waste 
of the organized tissues by incessant motion, in 
order to furnish the matter necessary for respira- 
tion, so the savage, for the very same object, is 
forced to make the most laborious exertions, and 
go through a vast amount of muscular exercise. 
He is compelled to consume force merely in order 
to supply matter for respiration. 

Cultivation is the economy of force. Science 
teaches us the simplest means of obtaining the 
greatest effect with the smallest expenditure of 
power, and with given means to produce a maxi- 
mum of force. The unprofitable exertion of power, 
the waste of force in agriculture, in other branches 
of industry, in science, or in social economy, is 
characteristic of the savage state, or of the want 
of knowledge. 

In accordance with what I have already stated, 
you will perceive that the substances of which the 
food of man is composed may be divided into two 
classes ; into nitrogenized and non-nitrogenized. 
The former are capable of conversion into blood ; 
the latter are incapable of this transformation. 

Out of those substances which are adapted to the 
formation of blood are formed all the organized 
tissues. The other class of substances, in the 
normal state of health, serve to support the process 
of respiration. The former may be called the 



DIVISION OF ALIMENTG. 109 

plastic elements of nutrition ; the latte/. iUvf^nli 
of respiration. 

Among the former we reckon — 

Vegetable fibrine. 
Vegetable albumen. 
Vegetable caseine. 
Animal flesh. 
Animal blood. 

Among the elements of respiration in our food 

are — 

Fat. Pectme- 

Starch. Bassorine. 

Gum. Wine. 

Cane Sugar. Beer. 

Grape Sugar. Spirits. 
Sugar of milk. 

The most recent and exact researches have 
established as a universal fact, to which nothing 
yet known is opposed, that the nitrogenized con- 
stituents of vegetable food have a composition iden- 
tical with that of the constituents of the blood. 

No nitrogenized compound, the composition of 
which differs from that of fibrine, albumen, and 
caseine, is capable of supporting the vital process 
in animals. 

The animal organism unquestionably possesses 
the power of forming, from the constituents of its 
blood, the substance of its membranes and cellular 
tissue, of the nerves and brain, and of the organic 

10 



110 LETTERS ON CHEMISTRY. 

part of cartilages and bones. But the blood must 
be supplied to it ready formed in everything but 
its form — that is, in its chemical composition. If 
this be not done, a period is rapidly put to the for- 
mation of blood, and consequently to life. 

This consideration enables us easily to explain 
how it happens that the tissues yielding gelatine 
or chondrine, as, for example, the gelatine of skin 
or of bones, are not adaj.ied for the support of the 
vital process ; for their composition is different 
from that of fibrine or albumen. It is obvious that 
this means nothing more than that those parts of 
tho animal organism which form the blood do not 
possess the power of effecting a transformation in 
the arrangement of the elements of gelatine, or of 
those tissues which contain it. The gelatinous tis- 
sues, the gelatine of the bones, the membranes, the 
cells, and the skin, suffer in the animal body, un- 
der the influence of oxygen and moisture, a pro- 
gressive alteration ; a part of these tissues is sepa- 
rated, and must be restored from the blood ; but 
this alteration and restoration is obviously confined 
within very narrow limits. 

While, in the body of a starving or sick indi- 
vidual, the fat disappears, and the muscular tissue 
takes once more the form of blood, we find that 
the tendons and membranes retain their natural 
condition ; the limbs of the dead body retain their 



USES OF GELATINE. Ill 

connexions, which depend on the gelatinous tis- 
sues. 

On the other hand, we see that the gelatine of 
bones devoured by a dog entirely disappears, while 
only the bone earth is found in his excrements. 
The same is true of man, when fed on food rich 
in gelatine, as, for example, strong soup. The 
gelatine is not to be found either in the urine or in 
the faeces, and consequently must have undergone 
a change, and must have served some purpose in 
the animal economy. It is clear that the gelatine 
must be expelled from the body in a form, different 
from that in which it was introduced as food. 

When we consider the transformation of the 
albumen of the blood into a part of an organ com- 
posed of fibrine, the identity in composition of the 
two substances rendeis the change easily conceiv- 
able. Indeed we find the change of a dissolved 
substance into an insoluble organ of vitality, chem- 
ically speaking, natural and easily explained, on 
account of this very identity of composition. Hence 
the opinion is not unworthy of a closer investiga- 
tion, that gelatine, when taken in the dissolved 
state, is again converted, in the body, into cellular 
tissue, membrane, and cartilage ; that it may serve 
for the reproduction of such parts of these tissues 
as have been wasted, and for their growth. 

And when the powers of nutrition in the whole 



112 LETTERS ON CHEMISTRY 

body are affected by a change of the health, then, 
even should the power of forming blood remain the 
same, the organic force by which the constituents 
of the blood are transformed into cellular tissue 
and membranes must necessarily be enfeebled by 
sickness. In the sick man, the intensity of the 
vital force, its power to produce metamorphoses, 
must be diminished as well in the stomach as in 
all other parts of the body. In this condition, the 
uniform experience of practical physicians shows 
that gelatinous matters in a dissolved state exer- 
cise a most decided influence on the state of the 
health. Given in a form adapted for assimilation, 
they serve to husband the vital force, just as may 
be done in the case of the stomach, by due prepa- 
ration of the food in general. 

Brittleness in the bones of graminivorous ani- 
mals is clearly owing to a weakness in those parts 
of the organism whose function it is to convert the 
constituents of the blood into cellular tissue and 
membrane ; and if we can trust to the reports of 
physicians who have resided in the East, the 
Turkish women, in their diet of rice, and in the 
frequent use of enemata of strong soup, have uni- 
ted the conditions necessary for the formation both 
of cellular tissue and of fat. 



ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE KINGDOM. *Ji 



LETTER XI. 

My dear sir : In the immense, yet limited ex- 
'panse of the ocean, the animal and vegetable king- 
doms are mutually dependant upon, and successive 
to, each other. The animals obtain their constit- 
uent elements from the plants, and restore them 
o the water in their original form, when they 
igain serve as nourishment to a new generation 
of plants. 

The oxygen which marine animals withdraw iu 
their respiration from the air, dissolved in sea-wa- 
ter, is returned to the water by the vital processes 
of sea plants ; that air is richer in oxygen than at- 
mospheric air, containing 32 to 33 per cent., while 
the latter contains only 21 per cent. Oxygen also 
combines with the products of the putrefaction of 
dead animal bodies, changes their carbon into car- 
bonic acid, their hydrogen into water, and their 
nitrogen assumes again the form of ammonia. 

Thus we observe in the ocean a circulation takes 
place without the addition or subtraction of any 
element, unlimited in duration, although limited in 



114 LETTERS ON CHEMISTS T. 

extent, inasmuch as in a confined space the nour- 
ishment of plants exists in a limited quantity. 

We well know that marine plants can not derive 
a sup})ly of humus for their nourishment through 
their roots. Look at the great sea-tang, the Fiicus 
Gigantius : this plant, according to Cook, reaches 
a height of 360 feet, and a single specimen, with 
its immense ramifications, nourishes thousands of 
marine animals ; yet its root is a small body, no 
larger than the fist. What nourishment can this 
draw from a naked rock, upon the surface of which 
there is no perceptible change ? It is quite obvious 
that these plants require only a hold — a fastening 
to prevent a change of place — as a counterpoise 
to their specific gravity, which is less than that of 
the medium in which they float. That medium 
provides the necessary nourishment, and presents 
it to the surface of every part of the plant. Sea- 
water contains not only carbonic acid and ammo- 
nia, but the alkaline and earthy phosphates and 
carbonates required by these plants for their 
growth, and which we always find as constant 
constituents of their ashes. 

All experience demonstrates that the conditions 
of. the existence of marine plants are the same 
which are essential to terrestial plants. But the 
latter do not live like sea plants, in a medium which 
contains all their elements, and surrounds with 



AGRICULTURE. 115 

appropriate nourishment every part of their organs ; 
on the contrary, they require two media, of which 
one, namely the soil, contains those essential ele- 
ments which are absent from the medium sur- 
rounding them, that is, the atmosphere. 

Is it possible that we could ever be in doubt 
respecting the office which the soil and its compo- 
nent parts subserve in the existence and growth of 
ve'getables ? — that there should have been a time 
when the mineral elements of plants were not 
regarded as absolutely essential to their vital- 
ity ? Has not the same circulation been observ- 
ed on the surface of the earth, which we have 
just contemplated in the ocean, — the same inces- 
sant change, disturbance and restitution of equili- 
brium ? 

Experience in agriculture shows that the pro- 
duction of vegetables on a given surface increases 
with the supply of certain matters, originally parts 
of the soil which had been taken up from it by 
plants- -the excrements of man and animals. These 
are nothing more tha-n matters derived from vege- 
table food, which in the vital processes of animals, 
or after their death, assume again the form under 
which they originally existed, as parts of the soil 
Now, we know that the atmosphere contains none 
of these substances, and therefore can replace none ; 
a.iid we know that their removal from a soil de- 



116 LETTERS ON CHEMISTRY. 

stroys its fertility, which may be restored and 
increased by a new supply. 

Is it possible, after so many decisive investiga- 
tions into the origin of the elements of animals and 
vegetables, the use of the alkalies, of lime and the 
phosphates, any doubt can exist as to the principles 
upon which a rational agriculture depends ? Can 
the art of agriculture be based upon any thing but 
the restitution of a disturbed equilibrium ? Can it 
be imagined that any country, however rich and 
fertile, with a flourishing commerce, which for cen- 
turies exports its produce in the shape of grain and 
cattle, will maintain its fertility, if the same com- 
merce does not restore, in some form of manure, 
those elements which have been removed from the 
soil, and which can not be replaced by the atmo- 
sphere ? Must not the same fate await every 
such country which has actually befallen the once 
prolific soil of Virginia, now in many parts no 
longer able to grow its former staple productions 
— wheat and tobacco ? 

In the large towns of England the produce both 
of English and foreign agriculture is largely con- 
sumed ; elements of the soil indispensable to plants 
do not return to the fields, — contrivances resulting 
from the manners and customs of English people, 
and peculiar to them, render it difficult, perhaps, 
impossible to collect the enormous quantity of (he 



AGRICULTURE. 117 

phosphates, which are daily, as solid and liquid 
excrements, carried into the rivers. These phos- 
phates, although present in the soil in the smallest 
quantity, are its most important mineral constitu- 
ents. It was observed that many English fields 
exhausted in that manner, immediately doubled 
their produce, as if by a miracle, when dressed 
with bone earth imported from the continent. But 
if the export of bones from Germany is continued 
to the extent it has hitherto reached, our soil must 
be gradually exhausted, and the extent of our loss 
may be estimated, by considering that one pound 
of bones contains as much phosphoric acid as a 
hundred-weight of grain. 

The imperfect knowledge of nature, and the 
properties and relations of matter, possessed by the 
alchemists, gave rise, in their time, to an opinion 
that metals as well as plants could be produced 
from a seed. The regular forms and ramifications 
seen in crystals, they imagined to be the leaves 
am! branches of metal plants ; and as they saw the 
seed of plants grow, producing root, stem and leaves, 
and again blossoms, fruits and seeds, apparently 
without receiving any supply of appropriate mate- 
ris-l, they deemed it worthy of zealous inquiry to 
discover the seed of gold, and the earth necessary 
for its development. If the metal seeds were once 
obtained, might they not entertain hopes of their 



118 LETTERS ON CHEMISTRY. 

growth ^ Such ideas could only be entertained 
when nothing was known of the atmosphere, and 
its participation with the earth, in administering 
to the vital processes of plants and animals. Mod- 
ern chemistry indeed produces the elements of 
water, and combining them, forms water anew ; 
but it does not create those elements — it derives 
them from water ; the new-formed artificial water 
has been water before. 

Many of our farmers are like the alchemists of 
old, — they are searching for the miraculous seed — • 
the means, which, without any further supply of 
nourishment to a soil scarcely rich enough to be 
sprinkled with indigenous plants, shall produce 
crops of grain a hundred-fold. 

The experience of centuries, nay, of thousands 
of years, is insufficient to guard men against these 
fallacies ; our only security from these and similar 
absurdities must be derived from a correct knowl- 
edge of scientific principles. 

In the first period of natural philosophy organic 
life was supposed to be derived from water only ; 
afterward, it was admitted that certain elements 
derived from the air must be superadded to the 
water ; but we now know that other elements must 
be supplied by the earth, if plants are to thrive 
and multiply. 

The amount of materials contained in the atmo- 



AGRICULTURE. 119 

Sphere, suited to the iiourishaient of plants, is 
limited ; but it must be abundantly sufficient to 
cover the whole surface of the earth with a rich 
vegetation. Under the tropics, and in those parts 
of our globe where the most genial conditions of 
fertility exist, — a suitable soil, a moist atmosphere, 
and a high temperature, — vegetation is scarcely 
limited by space ; and, where the soil is wanting, 
it is gradually supplied by the decaying leaves, 
bark and branches of plants. It is obvious there 
is no deficiency of atmospheric nourishment for 
plants in those regions, nor are these wanting in 
our own cultivated fields : all which plants require 
for their development is conveyed to them by the 
incessant motions of the atmosphere. The air be- 
tween the tropics contains no more than that of the 
arctic zones ; and yet how different is the amount 
of produce of an equal surface of land in the two 
situations ! 

This is easily explicable. All the plants of tropi- 
cal climates, the oil and wax palms, the sugar cane, 
&c., contain only a small quantity of the elements of 
the blood necessary to the nutrition of anirnds, as 
compared with our culti-^ated plants. The tubers 
of the potato in Chili, its native country, where the 
plant resembles a shrub if collected from an acre of 
land, would scarcely suffice to maintain an Irish 
family for a single day (Darwin). The result of 



120 LKTTERS ON CHEMISTRY. 

cultivation in those plants which serve as food is to 
produce in them those constituents of the blood. 
In the absence of the elements essential to these in 
the soil, starch, sugar, and woody fibre, are perhaps 
formed ; but no vegetable fibrine, albumen, or 
caseine. If we intend to produce on a given surface 
of soil more of these latter matters than the plants 
can obtain from the atmosphere or receive from 
the soil of the same surface in its uncultivated and 
normal state, we must create an artificial atmo- 
sphere, and add the needed elements to the soil. 

The nourishment which must be supplied in a 
given time to different plants, in order to admit a 
free and unimpeded growth, is very unequal. 

On pure sand, on calcareous soil, on naked rocks, 
only a few genera of plants prosper, and these are, 
for the most part, perennial plants. They require, 
for their slow growth, only such minute quantities 
of mineral substances as the soil can furnish, which 
may be totally barren for other species. Annual, 
and especially summer plants, grow and attain 
their perfection in a comparatively short time , 
they therefore do not prosper on a soil which is 
poor in those mineral substances necessary to their 
development. To attain a maximum in height in 
the short period of their existence the nourish- 
ment contained in the atmosphere is not sufficient. 
If the end of cultivation is to be obtained we must 



AGRICULTURE. 121 

create in the soil an artificial atmosphere of car- 
bonic acid and ammonia ; and this surplus of 
nourishment, which the leaves can not appropriate 
from the air, must be taken up by the correspond- 
ing organs, that is, the roots, from the soil. But 
ihe ammonia, together with the carbonic acid, are 
alone insufficient to become part of a plant destined 
to the nourishment of animals. In the absence 
of the alkalies, the phosphates and other earthy 
salts, no vegetable fibrine, no vegetable caseine, 
can be formed. The phosphoric acid of the phos- 
phate of lime, indispensable to the ceralia and 
other vegetables in the formation of their seeds, is 
separated as an excrement, in great quantities, by 
the rind and barks of ligneous plants. 

How different are the evergreen plants, the ole 
aginous plants, the mosses, the ferns, and the 
pines, from our annual grasses, the ceralia and 
leguminous vegetables ! The former, at ever}'' 
time of the day during winter and summer, obtain 
carbon through their leaves by absorbing carbonic 
acid which is not furnished by the barren soil on 
which they grow ; water is also absorbed and re- 
tained by their coriaceous or fleshy leaves with 
great force. They lose very little by evaporation, 
compared with other plants. On the other hand, 
how very small is the quantity of mineral sub- 
stances which they withdraw from the soil during 

11 



J22 LETTERS ON CHKMISTRY. 

their almost constant growth in one year, in com- 
parison with the quantity which one crop of wheat 
of an equal weight receives in three months ! 

It is by means of moisture that plants receive 
the necessary alkalies and salts from the soil. In 
dry summers a phenomenon is observed, which, 
when the importance of mineral elements to the 
life of a plant was unknown, could not be explained. 
The leaves of plants first developed and perfected, 
and therefore nearer the surface of the soil, shrivel 
up and become yellow, lose their vitality, and fall 
off while the plant is in an active state of growth, 
without any visible cause. This phenomenon is 
not seen in moist years, nor in evergreen plants, 
and but rarely in plants which have long and deep 
roots, nor is it seen in perennials in autumn and 
winter. 

The cause of this premature decay is now ob- 
vious. The perfectly-developed leaves absorb 
continually carbonic acid and ammonia from the 
atmosphere, which are converted into elements of 
new leaves, buds, and shoots ; but this metamor- 
phosis can not be effected without the aid of the 
alkalies, and other mineral substances. If the sol} 
is moist, the latter are continually supplied to an 
adequate amount, and the plant retains its lively 
green color; but if this supply ceases from a want 
of moisture to dissolve the mineral elements, a 



AGRICULTURE. 123 

separation takes place in the plant itself. The 
mineral constituents of the juice are withdrawn 
from the leaves already formed, and are used for 
the formation of the young shoots ; and 'ds soon as 
the seeds are developed, the vitality of the leaves 
completely ceases. These withered leaves con- 
tain only minute traces of soluble salts, while the 
buds and shoots are very rich in them, 

On the other hand, it has been observed, that 
where a soil is too highly impregnated with solu- 
ble saline materials, these are separated upon the 
surface of the leaves. This happens to culinary 
vegetables especially, whose leaves become cov- 
ered with a white crust. In consequence of these 
exudations the plant sickens, its organic activity 
decreases, its growth is disturbed ; and if this state 
continues long, the plant dies. This is most fre- 
quently seen in foliaceous plants, the large sur- 
faces of which evaporate considerable quantities 
of water. Carrots, pumpkins, peas, &c., are fre- 
quently thus diseased, when, after dry weather, 
the plant being near its full growth, the soil is 
moistened by short showers, followed again by dry 
weather. The rapid evaporation carries off the 
water absorbed by the root, and this leaves the 
salts in the plant in a far greater quantity than it 
can assimilate. These salts effloresce upon the 
surface of the leaves, and if they are herbaceous 



124 LETTERS ON CHEMISTRY. 

and juicy, produce an effect upon them as if they 
had been watered with a solution containing a 
greater quantity of salts than their organism can 
bear. 

Of two plants of the same species, this disease 
befalls that which is nearest its perfection ; if ono 
should have been planted later, or be more back- 
ward in its. development, the same external cause 
which destroys the one will contribute to the 
2Towth of the other. 



CHEMISTRY OF AGRICULTURE. 125 



LETTER XII. 



My dear sir : Having now occupied several 
letters with the attempt to unravel, by means of 
chemistry, some of the most curious functions of 
the animal body, and, as I hope, made clear to 
you the distinctions between the two kinds of con- 
stituent elements in food, and the purposes they 
severally subserve in sustaining life, let me now 
direct your attention to a scarcely less interesting 
and equally important subject — the means of ob- 
taining from a given surface of the earth the 
largest amount of produce adapted to the food of 
man and animals. 

Agriculture is both a science and an art. The 
knowledge of all the conditions of the life of vege- 
tables, the origin of their elements, and the sources 
of their nourishment, forms its scientific basis. 

From this knowledge we derive certain rules 
for the exercise of the art, the principles upon 
which the m.echanical operations of farming de- 
pend, the usefulness or necessity of these for pre- 

11* 



126 LETTERS ON CHEMISTRY. 

paring the soil to support the growth of plants^, 
and for removing every obnoxious influence. No 
experience, drawn from the exercise of the art, 
can be opposed to true scientific principles, be- 
cause the latter should include all the results of 
practical operations, and are in some instances 
solely derived therefrom. Theory must corre- 
spond with experience, because it is nothing more 
than the reduction of a series of phenomena to 
their last causes. 

A field in which we cultivate the same plant 
for several successive years becomes barren for 
that plant in a period varying with the nature of 
the soil : in one field it will be in three, in anoth- 
er in seven, in a third in twenty, in a fourth in a 
hundred years. One field bears wheat, and no 
peas ; another beans and turnips, but no tobacco ; 
a third gives a plentiful crop of turnips, but will 
not bear clover. What is the reason that a field 
loses its fertility for one plant, the same which 
at first flourished there ? What is the reason one 
kind of plant succeeds in a field where another 
fails ? 

These questions belong to Science. 

What means are necessary to preserve to a 
field its fertility for one and the same plant? — 
what to render one field fertile for two, for three, 
for all plants ? 



CHEMISTRY OF AGRICULTURE. 127 

These last questions arc jjiit ly Art, but they can 
not he ansvered by Art. 

If a farmer, without the guidance of just scien- 
tific principles, is trying experiments to render a 
field fertile for a plant which it otherwise will not 
bear, his prospect of success is very small. Thou- 
sands of farmers try such experiments in various 
directions, the result of which is a mass of prac- 
tical experience forming a method of cultivation 
which accomplishes the desired end for certain 
places ; but the same method frequently does not 
succeed — it indeed ceases to be applicable to a 
second or third place in the immediate neighbor- 
hood. How large a capital, and how much power, 
are Avasted in these experiments ! Very different, 
and far more secure, is the path indicated by 
SCIENCE ; it exposes us to no danger of failing, 
but, on the contrary, it furnishes us with every 
guarantee of success. If the cause of failure — of 
barrenness in the soil for one or two plants — has 
been discovered, means to remedy it may readily 
be found. 

The most exact observations prove that the 
method of cultivation must vary with the geognos- 
tical condition of the subsoil. In basalt, gray- 
wacke, porphyry, sandstone, limestone, &c., are 
certain elements indispensable to the growth of 
plants, and the presence of which renders them 



128 LETTERS ON CIIEMFSTRY. 

fertile. This fully explains the diflerence in the 
necessary methods of culture for different places ; 
since it is obvious that the essential elements of 
the soil must vary vvilli the varieties of composi- 
tion of the rocks, from the disintegration of which 
they originated. 

Wheat, clover, turnips, for example,' each re- 
quire certain elements from the soil ; they will not 
flourish wdiere the appropriate elements are absent. 
Science teaches us what elements are essential to 
every species of plants by an analysis of their 
ashes. If therefore a soil is found wanting in any 
of those elements, we discover at once the cause 
of its barrenness, and its removal may now be 
readily accomplished. 

The empiric attributes all his success to the me- 
chanical operations of agriculture ; he experiences 
and recognises their value, without inquiring what 
are the causes of their utility, their mode of ac- 
tion : and yet this scientific knowledge is of the 
highest importance for regulating the application 
of power and the expenditure of capital — for in- 
suring its economical expenditure and the preA en- 
tion of waste. Can it be imagined that the mere 
passing of the ploughshare or the harrow through 
the soil — the mere contact of the iron — can impart 
fertility miraculously ? Nobody, perhaps, serious- 
ly entertains such an opinion. Nevertheless, the 



CHEMISTRY OF AGRICULTURE. 129 

modus operandi of these mechanical operations is 
by no means generally imderstood. The fact is 
quite certain, that careful ploughing exerts the 
most favorable influence : the surface is thus me- 
chanically divided, changed, increased, and reno- 
vated ; but the ploughing is only auxiliary to the 
end sought. 

In the eflects of time, in what in Agriculture are 
technically c^Weii fallows — the repose of the fields 
— we recognise by science certain chemical ac- 
tions, which are continually exercised by the ele- 
ments of the atmosphere upon the whole surface 
of our globe. By the action of its oxygen and its 
carbonic acid, aided -by water, rain, changes of 
temperature, &c., certain elementary constituents 
of rocks, or of their ruins, which form the soil ca- 
pable of cultivation, are rendered soluble in water, 
and consequently become separable from all their 
insoluble parts. 

These chemical actions, poetically denominated 
the " the tooth of time," destroy all the works of 
man, and gradually reduce the hardest rocks to 
the condition of dust. By their influence the ne- 
cessary elements of the soil become fitted for as- 
similation by plants ; and it is precisely the end 
which is obtained by the mechanical operations 
of farming. They accelerate the decomposition 
of the soil, in order to provide a new generation 



130 LETTERS ON CHEMISTRY. 

of plants with the necessary elements in a condi- 
tion favorable to their assimilation. It is obvious 
that the rapidity of the decompositicm of a solid 
body must increase with the extension of its sur- 
face ; the more points of contact we offer in a 
given time to the external chemical agent, the 
more rapid will be its action, 

The chemist, in order to prepare a mineral for 
analysis, to decompose it, or to increase the solu- 
bility of its elements, proceeds in the same way 
as the farmer deals with his fields — he spares no 
labor in order to reduce it to the finest powder ; 
he separates the impalpable from the coarser parts 
by washing, and repeats his mechanical bruising 
and trituration, being assured his whole process 
will fail if he is inattentive to this essential and 
preliminary part of it. 

The influence which the increase of surface 
exercises upon the disintegration of rocks, and 
upon the chemical action of air and moisture, is 
strikingly illustrated upon a large scale in the op- 
erations pursued in the gold mines of Yaquil, in 
Chili. These are described in a very interesting 
manner by Darwin. The rock containing the gold 
ore is pounded by mills into the finest powder ; 
this is subjected to washing, which separates the 
lighter particles from the metallic ; the gold sinks 
to the bottom, while a stream of water carries 



WASHING FOR GOLD. 13] 

away the lighter earthy parts into ponds, where it 
subsides to the bottom as mud. When this deposite 
has gradually filled up the pond, this mud is taken 
out and piled in heaps, and left exposed to the 
action of the atmosphere and moisture. The 
washing completely removes all the soluble part 
of the disintegrated rock ; the insoluble part, 
moreover, can not undergo any further change 
while it is covered with water, and so excluded 
from the influence of the atmosphere at the bottom 
of the pond. But being exposed at once to the 
air and moisture, a powerful chemical action takes 
place in the whole mass, which becomes indicated 
by an efliorescence of salts covering the whole 
surface of the heaps in considerable quantity. After 
being exposed for two or three years, the mud is 
again subjected to the same process of washing, 
and a considerable quantity of gold is obtained,' 
this having been separated by the chemical pro- 
cess of decomposition in the mass. The exposure 
and washing of the same mud is repeated six or 
seven times, and at every washing it furnishes a 
new quantity of gold, although its amount dimin- 
ishe's every time. 

Precisely similar is the chemical action which 
takes place in the soil of our fields ; and we ac- 
celerate and increase it by the mechanical opera- 
tions of agriculture. By these we sever and ex- 



132 LETTERS ON CHEMISTRY. 

tend the surface, and endeavor to make every atom 
of the soil accessible to the action of the carbonic 
acid and oxygen of the atmosphere. We thus 
produce a stock of soluble mineral substances, 
which serve as nourishment to a new generation 
of plants, and which are indispensable to their 
growth and prosperity. 



MINERALS IN AGRICULTURE. 133 



LETTER XIII. 

My dear sir : Having in my last letter spoken 
of the general principles upon which the science 
and art of agriculture must be based, let me now- 
direct your attention to some of those particulars 
which will more forcibly exhibit the connexion 
between chemistry and agriculture, and demon- 
strate the impossibility of perfecting the important 
art of rearing food for man and animals without a 
profound knowledge of our science. 

All plants cultivated as food require for their 
healthy sustenance the alkalies and alkaline earths, 
each in a certain proportion ; and in addition to 
these, the ceralia do not succeed in a soil destitute 
of silica in a soluble condition. The combinations 
of this substance found as natural productions, 
namely, the silicates differ greatly in the degree 
of facility with which they undergo decomposition, 
in consequence of the unequal resistance opposed 
by their integral parts to the dissolving power of 
the atmospheric agencies. Thus the granite of 

12 



134 LETTERS ON CHEMISTRY. 

Corsica degenerates into a powder in a time 
which scarcely suffices to deprive the polished 
granite of Heidelberg of its lustre. 

Some soils abound in silicates so readily de- 
composable, that in every one or two years, as 
much silicate of potash becomes soluble and fitted 
for assimilation as is required by the leaves and 
straw of a crop of wheat. In Hungary, extensive 
districts are not uncommon where wheat and to- 
bacco have been grown alternately upon the same 
soil for centuries, the land never receiving back 
any of those mineral elements which were with- 
drawn in the grain and straw. On the other 
hand, there are fields in which the necessary 
amount of soluble silicate of potash for a single 
crop of wheat is not separated from the insoluble 
masses in the soil in less than two, three, or even 
more years. 

The ierm fallow, in Agriculture, designates that 
period in which the soil, left to the influence of 
the atmosphere, becomes enriched with those so- 
luble mnieral constituents. Fallow, however, does 
not generally imply an entire cessation of cultiva- 
tion, but only an interval in the growth of the 
ceralia. That store of silicates and alkalies which 
is the principal condition of their success is ob- 
tained, if potatoes or turnips are grown upon the 
same fields in the intermediate periods, since these 



USES OF LIME. 135 

crops do not abstract a particle of silica, and there- 
fore leave the f;eld equally fertile for the following 
crop of wheat. 

The preceding remarks will render it obvious to 
you, that the mechanical working of the soil is the 
simplest and cheapest method of rendering the 
elements of nutrition contained in it accessible to 
plants. 

But it may be asked, Are there not other means 
of decomposing the soil besides its mechanical 
subdivision 1 — are there not substances, which by 
their chemical operation shall equally well or bet- 
ter render its constituents suitable for enterinsf intr 
vegetable organisms ? Yes : we certainly possess 
such substances, and one of them, namely, quick- 
lime, has been employed for the last century past 
in England for this purpose ; and it would be dif- 
ficult to find a substance better adapted to this ser- 
vice, as it is simple, and in almost all localities 
cheap and easily accessible. 

In order to obtain correct views respecting the 
effect of quick-lime upon the soil, let me remind you 
of the first process employed by the chemist when 
ho is desirous of analysing a mineral, and for this 
purpose wishes to bring its elements into a soluble 
state. Let the mineral to be examined be, for in- 
stance, feldspar ; this substance, taken alone, 
even when reduced to the finest powder, requires 



136 . LETTERS Oi\ CHEMISTRY. * 

for its solulion to be treated with an acid for weeks 
or months ; but if we first mix it \Yith quicklime, 
and expose the mixture to a moderately strong 
heat, the lime enters into chemical combination 
with certain elements of the feldspar, and its 
alkali (potass) is set free. And now the acid, 
even without heat, dissolves not only the lime, 
but also so much of the silica of the feldspar 
as to form a transparent jelly. The same effect 
which the lime in this process, with the acid of 
heat, exerts upon the feldspar, it produces when 
it is mixed with the alkaline argillaceous sili- 
cates, and they are for a long time kept together 
in a moist state. 

Common potters' clay, or pipe-clay, diffused 
through water, and added to milk of lime, thickens 
immediately upon mixing; and if the mixture is 
kept for some months, and then treated with acid, 
the clay becomes gelatinous, which it would not 
have done without the admixture with the lime. 
The lime, in combining with the elements of the 
clay liquefies it ; and, what is more remarkable, lib- 
erates the greater part of its alkalies. These inte- 
resting facts were first observed by Fuchs, at Mu- 
nich : they have not only led to a more intimate 
knowledge of the nature and properties of the 
hydraulic cements, but what is far more important, 
they explain the effects of caustic lime upon the 



t/SE OF LIME. 137 

8oil, and guide the agriculturist in the application 
of an invaluable means of opening it, and setting 
free its alkalies — substances so important, nay, so 
indispensable to his crops. 

In the month of October the fields of Yorkshire 
and Oxfordshire look as if they were covered with 
snow. Whole square miles are seen whitened 
over vidth quicklime, which, during. the moist 
winter months, exercises its beneficial influence 
upon the stiff, clayey soil, of those counties. 

According to the humus theory, quicklime 
ought to exert the most noxious infl-uence upon 
the soil, because all organic matters contained in 
it are destroyed by it, and rendered incapable of 
yielding their humus to a new vegetation. The 
facts are indeed directly contrary to this now 
abandoned theory : the fertility of the soil is in- 
creased by the lime. 

The ceralia require the alkalies and alkaline 
silicates, which the action of the lime renders 
fit for assimilation by the plants. If, in addi- 
tion to these, there is any decaying organic mat- 
ter present in the soil supplying carbonic acid, it 
may facilitate their development ; but it is not 
essential to their growth. If we furnish the soil 
with ammonia, and the phosphates, which are iu' 
dispensable to the ceralia, with the alkaline sili- 
cates, we have all the conditions necessary to en- 
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138 LETTERS ON CHEMISTRY. 

sure an abundant harvest. The atmosphere is an 
inexhaustible store of carbonic acid. 

A no less favorable influence than that of lime 
is exercised upon the soil of peaty land by the 
mere act of burning it : this greatly enhances its 
fertility. We have not long been acquainted with 
the remarkable change which the properties of clay 
undergo by burning. The observation was first 
made in the process of analysing the clay silicates. 
Many of ilieso, in their natural state, are not acted 
on by acids, but they become perfectly soluble if 
heated to redness before the application of the acid. 
This property belongs to potters' clay, pipe-clay, 
loam, and many different modifications of clay in 
soils. In their natural state they may be boiled 
in concentrated sulphuric acid, without sensible 
change ; but if freely burned, as is done with the 
pipe-clay in many alum manufactories, they dis- 
solve in the acid with the greatest facility, the 
contained silica being separated like a jelly in a 
soluble state. Potters' clay belongs to the most 
steril kinds of soil, and yet it contains within 
itself all the constituent elements essential to a 
most luxurious growth of plants ; but their mere 
presence is insufficient to secure this end. The 
soil must be accessible to the atmosphere, to its 
oxygen, to its carbonic acid ; — these must pene- 
trate it, in order to secure the conditions necessary 



INFLUENCF, OF LIME. 13S 

to a happy and vigorous development of the roots 
The elements present must be brought into that 
peculiar state of combination which will enable 
them to enter into plants. Plastic clay is wanting 
in these properties ; but they are imparted to it by 
a feeble calcination. 

At Hardwicke Court, near Gloucester, I have 
seen a garden (Mr. Baker's) consisting of a stiff 
clay, which was perfectly steril, become by 
mere burning extremely fertile. The operation 
was extended to a depth of three feet. This was 
an expensive process, certainly ; but it was ef- 
fectual. 

The great difference in the properties of burnt 
and unburnt clay is illustrated by what is seen in 
brick houses, built in moist situations. In the 
towns of Flanders, for instance, where most build- 
ings are of brick, efflorescences of salts cover the 
surfaces of the walls, like a white nap, within a 
few days after they are erected. If this saline 
incrustation is washed away by the rain, it soon 
re-appears ; and this is even observed on walls 
which, like the gateway of Lisle, have been erect- 
ed for centuries. These saline incrustations con- 
sist of carbonates and sulphates, with alkaline 
bases ; and it is well known these act an impor- 
tant part in vegetation. The influence of lime in 
their production is manifested by their appearing 



140 LETTERS ON CHEMISTRY, 

first at the place where the mortar and brick come 
into contact. 

It will now be obvious to you, that in a mixture 
of clay with lim'fe, all the conditions exist for the 
solution of the silicated clay, and the solubility of 
the alkaline silicates. The lime gradually dissolv- 
ing in water charged with carbonic acid, acts like 
milk of lime upon the clay. This explains also 
the favorable influence which marl (by which 
term all those varieties of clay rich in lime are 
designated) exerts upon most kinds of soil. There 
are marly soils which surpass all others in fertility 
for all kinds of plants ; but I believe marl in- a 
burnt stale must be far more effective, as well as 
other materials possessing a similar composition ; 
as, for instance, those species of limestone which 
are adapted to the preparation of hydraulic ce- 
ments — for these carry to the soil not only the 
alkaline bases useful to plants, bui also silica in a 
stale capable of assimilation. 

The ashes of coals and lignite are also excel- 
lent means of ameliorating the soil, and they are 
used in many places for this purpose. The most 
suitable may be readily known by their property 
of forming a gelatinous mass when treated with 
acids, or by becoming, when mixed with cream 
of lime, like hydraulic iime — solid and hard as 
stone. 



OPERATIONS OF AGRICULTURE. 14! 

'■ have now, I trust, explained to your satisfac- 
ti, A^ that the mechanical operations of agriculture 
— ihe application of lime and chalk to lands, and 
the burning of clay — depend upon one and the 
sai.^e scientific principle : they are means of ac- 
celerating the decomposition of the alkaline clay 
silicates, in order to provide plants, at the begin- 
nin/^ of a new vegetation, with certain inorganic 
matters indispensable for their nutrition. 



142 LETTERS ON CHEMISTRY. 



LETTER XiV. 



My dear sir : I treated, in my last letter, of 
the means of improving the condition of the soil 
for agricultural purposes by mechanical operations 
and mineral agents. I have now to speak of the 
uses and effects of animal exuviae, and vegetable 
matters or manures — properly so called. 

In order to understand the nature of these, and 
the peculiarity of their influence upon our fields, 
it is highly important to keep in mind the source 
whence they are derived. 

It is generally known, that if we deprive an 
animal of food, the v/eight of its body diminishes 
during every moment of its existence. If this ab- 
stinence is continued for some time, the diminution 
becomes apparent to the eye ; all the fat of the body 
disappears, the muscles decrease in firmness and 
bulk, and, if the animal is allowed to die starved, 
scarcely anything but skin, tendon, and bones, 
remain. This emaciation which occurs in a body 
otherwise healthy, demonstrates to us, that during 



ORIGIN OF ANIMAL MANURES. 143 

the life of an animal every part of its living sub- 
stance is undergoing a perpetual change ; all its 
component parts, assuming the form of lifeless 
compounds, are thrown off by the skin, lungs, and 
urinary system, aUered more or less by the secre- 
tory organs. This change in the living body is 
intimately connected with the process of respi- 
ration ; it is, in truth, occasioned by the oxygen 
of the atmosphere in breathing, which combines 
with all the various matters within the body. At 
every inspiration a quantity of oxygen passes into 
the blood in the lungs, and unites with its elements ; 
but although the weight of the oxygen thus daily 
entering into the body amounts to 32 or more 
ounces, yet the weight of the body is not thereby 
increased. Exactly as much oxygen as is imbibed 
in inspiration passes off in expiration, in the form 
of carbonic • acid and water ; so that with every 
breath the amount of carbon and hydrogen in the 
body is diminished. But the emaciation — the loss 
of weight by starvation — does not simply depend 
upon the separation of the carbon and hydrogen ; 
but all the other substances which are in combina- 
tion with these elements in the living tissues pass 
off in the secretions. The nitrogen undergoes a 
change, and is thrown out of the system by the 
kidneys. Their secretion, the urine, contains not 
only a compound rich in nitrogen, namely urea, 



144 LETTERS ON CHEMISTRY. 

but the sulphur of the tissues in the form of a 
sulphate, all the soluble salts of the blood and 
animal fluids, common salt, the phosphates, soda, 
and potash. The carbon and hydrogen of the 
blood of the muscular fibre, and of all the animal 
tissues which can undergo change, return into the 
atmospherr:. The nitrogen, and all the soluble in- 
organic elements, are carried to the earth in the 
urine. 

These changes take place in the healthy animal 
body during every moment of life ; a waste and 
loss of substance proceeds continually ; and if this 
loss is to be restored, and the original weight and 
substance repaired, an adequate supply of mate- 
rials' must be furnished whence the blood and 
wasted tissues may be regenerated. This supply 
is obtained from the food. 

In an adult person in a normal or healthy condi- 
tion, no sensible increase or decrease of weight 
occurs from da)^ to day. In youth the weight of 
the body increases, while in old age it decreases. 
There can be no doubt that in the adult the food 
has exactly replaced the loss of substance : it has 
supplied just so much carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, 
and other elements, as have passed through the 
skin, lungs, and urinary organs. In youth the 
supply is greater than the waste. Part of the 
elements of the food remain t^ augment the bulk 



ORIGIN OF ANIMAL MANURES. 145 

of the body. In old age the waste is greater than 
the supply, and the body diminishes. It is un- 
questionable, that, with the exception of a certain 
quantity of carbon and hydrogen, which are se- 
creted through the skin and lungs, we obtain, in 
the solid and fluid excrements of man and animals, 
ill the elements of their food. 

We obtain daily, in the form of urea, all th'^ 
nitrogen taken in the food both of the young and 
ih^ adult ; and further, in the urine, the wl ole 
amo t t of the alkalies, soluble phosphates ^nd 
sulpha ics contained in all the various aliments. In 
\he s-oiM excrements are found all those subst^iuces 
taken in the food which have undergone no altei- 
ation ir) the digestive organs, all indigestible mat- 
ters, such as woody fibre, the green coloring mat- 
ter of leaves (chlorophyle), wax, &c. 

Physiology teaches us that the process of nutri- 
tion, in animals, that is, their increase of bulk, or 
the restoration of wasted parts, proceeds from the 
blood. The purpose of digestion and assimilation 
is to convert the food into blood. In the stomach 
and intestines, therefore, all those substances in 
the food capable of conversion into blood are sepa- 
rated from its other constituents ; in other words, 
during the passage of the food through the intes- 
tinal canal there is a constant absorption of its 
nitrogen, since only azotized substances are capable 

13 



146 LETTERS ON CHEMISTRV. 

af conversion into blood ; and thercrure lliu solid 
excrements are destitute of that element, except 
only a small portion, in the constitution ol" that 
secretion which is formed to facilitate their passage. 
With the solid excreu'.ents, the phosphates of lime 
and magnesia, which were contained in the food 
and not assimilated, are carried off, these salts 
' • ing insoluble in water, and therefore not enter- 
ing; the urine. 

We may obtain a clear insight into the chemi-. '.1 
con-titttionof the solid excrements without i- ihet 
invf^ficctiion, by comparing the faeces of a do.. ;^'it.h 
Ilia ff:H)d. We give that animal flesh and bo', s — 
sub?iances rich in azotised matter — and w( o cin, 
astb^ last product of its digestion, a perfect'y - '.litb 
exv;'ement, solid while moist, but becoming lu f,'**^. 
dry air a powder. This is the phosphate of lime 
of the bones, with scarcely one per cent, of forei^ii 
organic matter. 

Thus we see that in the solid and fluid excre- 
ments of man and animals, all the nitrogen — in 
short, all the constituent ingredients of the con- 
sumed food, soluble and insoluble, are returned ; 
and a.' food is primarily derived from the fields, we 
possess in those excrements all the ingredients 
which we have taken from it in the form of seeds, 
roots, or herbs. 

One part of the crops employed for fattening 



Nature of animal excrements. 147 

sheep and cattle is consumed by man as animal 
food ; another part is taken directly — as floair, po- 
tatoes, green vegetables, &c.; a third portion con- 
sists of vegetable refuse, and straw employed as 
litter. None of the materials of the soil need be 
lost. We can, it is obvious, get back all its con- 
stituent parts which have been withdrawn there- 
from, as fruits, grain, and animals, in the fluid and 
solid excrements of n\an, and the bones, blood and 
skins of the slaughtered animals. It depends upon 
ourselves to collect carefully all these scattered 
elenje:';,ts, and to restore the disturbed equilibrium 
of ccrnposition in the soil. We can calculate ex- 
actly how much and which of the component parts 
oi the soil we export in a sheep or an ox, in a 
quarter of barley, Avheat, or potatoes, and we can 
discover, from the known composition of the excre- 
ments of man and animals, how much we have to 
supply to restore what is lost to our fields. 

If, however, we could procure from other sources 
the substances which give to the exuviae of man 
and animals their value in agriculture, we should 
not need the latter. It is quite indifferent for 
our purpose whether we supply the ammonia (the 
source of nitrogen) in the form of urine, or in that 
of a salt derived from coal-tar ; whether we derive 
the phosphate of lime from bones, apatite, or fossil 
excrements (the coprolithes). 



148 LETTERS ON CHEMISTRY. 

The principal problem for agriculture is,hoA' tO 
replace those substances which have been taken 
from the soil, and which can not be furnished by 
the atmosphere. If the manure -supplies an imper- 
fect compensation for this loss, the fertility of a field 
or of a country decreases ; if, on tlie contrary, more 
are given to the fields, their fertility increases. 

An importation of urine, or of solid excrements, 
from a foreign country, is equivalent to an import- 
ation of grain and cattle. In a certain time, the 
elements of those substances assume the form of 
grain, or of fodder, then become flesh and bones 
enter into the human body, and return again day 
by day to the form they originally possessed. 

The only real loss of elements we are unable 
to prevent is of the phosphates, and these, in ac- 
cordance with the customs of all modern nations, 
are deposited in the grave. For the rest, every 
part of that enormous quantity of food which a 
man consumes during his lifetime (say in sixty or 
seventy years), which was derived from the fields, 
can be obtained and returned to them. We know 
with absolute certainty, that in the blood of a 
young or growing animal there remains a certain 
quantity of phosphate of lime and of the alkaline 
phosphates, to be stored up and minister to the 
growth of the bones and general bulk of the body, 
and that, with the exception of this very smalJ 



VARIOUS VALUE OF EXCREMENTS. 149 

quantity, we receive back, in the solid and fluid 
excrements, all the salts and alkaline bases, all 
the phosphate of lime and magnesia, and consc- 
queirdy all the inorganic elements which the ani- 
mal consumes in its food. 

We can thus ascertain precisely the quantity, 
quality, and composition of animal excrements, 
without the trouble of analyzing them. If v/e 
give a horse daily 4J pounds' weight of oats, and 
15 pounds of hay, and knowing that oats give 4 
per cent, and hay 9 per cent, of aslio, we can 
calculate that the daily excrements of the horse 
will contain 21 ounces of inorganic matter which 
was drawn from the fields. Bv analysis we can 
determine the exact relative amount of silica, of 
phosphates, and of alkalies, contained in the 
ashes of the oats and of the hay. 

You will now understand that the constituents 
of the solid parts of animal excrements, and there- 
fore their qualities as manure, must vary with the 
nature of the creature's food. If we feed a cow 
upon beetroot, or potatoes, without hay, straw, or 
grain, there will be no silica in her solid excre- 
ments, but there will be phosphate of lime and 
magnesia. Her fluid excrements will contain car- 
bonate of potash and soda, together with com- 
pounds of the same bases with inorganic acids. In 
one word, we have in the fluid excrements^ all the 

13* 



150 LETTERS ON CHEMISTRY. 

soluble parts of the ashes of the consumed food ; 
and in the solid excrement 5, all those parts of the 
ashos which are insoluble in M'ater. 

If the food, after burning, leaves behind ashes 
containing soluble alkaline phosphates, as is the 
case with bread, seeds of all kinds, and flesh, we 
obtain from the animal by which they are con- 
sumed a urine holding in solution these phos- 
phates. If, however, the ashes of food contain 
no alkaline phosphates, but abound in insoluble 
earthy phosphates, as hay, carrots, and potatoes, 
the urine will be free from alkaline phosphates, 
but the earthy phosphates will be found in the 
faeces. The urine of man, of carnivorous Jind gram- 
inivorous animals, contains alkaline phosphates ; 
that of herbivorous animals is free from these salts. 

The analysis of the excrements of man, of the 
piscivorous birds (as the guano), of the horse, and 
of cattle, furnishes us with the precise knowledge 
of the salts they contain, and demonstrates, that 
in those excrements, we return to the fields the 
ashes of the plants which have served as food — 
the soluble and insoluble salts and earths indispen- 
sable to the development of cultivated plants, and 
which must be furnished to them by a fertile soil. 

There can be no doubt that, in supplying these 
excrements to the soil, we return to it those con 
stituents which the crops have removed from it, 



VARIOUS VALUE OF EXCREMENTS. 151 

and we renew its capability of nourishing new 
crops : in one word, we restore the disturbed equi- 
librium ; and consequently, knowing that the ele- 
ments of the food derived from the soil enter into 
the urine and solid excrements of the animals it 
nourishes, we can with the greatest facility deter- 
mine the exact value of the different kinds of ma- 
nure. Thus the excrements of pigs which we 
have fed with peas and potatoes are principally 
suited for manuring crops of potatoes and peas. 
In feeding a cow upon hay and turnips, we obtain 
a manure containing the inorganic elements of 
grasses and turnips, and which is therefore prefer- 
able for. manuring turnips. The excrement of 
pigeons c(mtains the mineral elements of grain ; 
that of rabbits, the elements of herbs and kitchen 
vegetables. The fluid and solid excrements of 
man, however, contain the mineral elements of 
grain and seeds in the greatest quantity. 



152 LETTERS ON CHEMISTRY 



LETTER XV. 

My dear sir : You are now acquainted with 
my opinions respecting the effects of the applica- 
tion of mineral agents to our cultivated fields, and 
also the rationale of the influence of the various 
kinds of manures ; you will, therefore, now readily 
understand what I have further to say of the sour- 
ces whence the carbon and nitrogen, indispensable 
to the growth of plants, are derived. 

The growth of forests, and the produce of mead- 
ows, demonstrate that an inexhaustible quantity 
of carbon is furnished for vegetation by the car-' 
bonic acid of the atmosphere. 

We obtain from an equal surface of forest, or 
meadow-land, where the necessary mineral ele- 
ments of the soil are present in a suitable state, 
and to Avhich no carbonaceous matter whatever is 
furnished in manures, an amount of carbon, in the 
shape of wood and hay, quite equal, and ofttimes 
more than is produced by our fields, in grain, roots, 



SOURCE OF CAR30N. 153 

and straw, upon which abundance of manure has 
been heaped. 

It is perlectly obvious that the atmosphere must 
furnish to our cultivated fields as much carbonic 
acid, as it does to an equal surface of forest or 
meadow, and that the carbon of this carbonic acid 
is assimilated, or may })e assimilated by the plants 
growing there, provided the conditions essential 
to its ajisimilation, and becoming a constituent 
element of vegetables, exist in the soil of tliese 
fields. 

In many tropical countries the produce of the 
land in grain or roots, during the whole year, de- 
pends upon one rain in the spring. If this rain 
is deficient in quantity, or altogether wanting, the 
expectation of an abundant harvest is diminished 
or destroyed. 

Now it can not be the water merely which pro- 
duces this enlivening and fertilizing efl^'ect observ- 
ed, and which lasts for weeks and months. The 
plant receives, by means of this water, at the time 
of its first development, the alkahes, alkaline earths, 
and phosphates, necessary to its organization. If 
these elements, which are necessary previous to 
its assimilation of atmospheric nourishment, be ab- 
sent, its growth is retarded. In fact, the develop- 
ment of a plant is in a direct ratio to the amount 
of the matters it takes up from the soil. If, there- 



154 LETTERS ON CHEMISTRY. 

fore, a soil is deficient in these mineral constituents, 
required by plants, they will not flourish even 
with an abundant supply of water. 

The produce of carbon on a meadow, or an equal 
surface of forest land, is independent of a supply 
of carbonaceous manure, but it depends upon the 
presence of certain elements of the soil which in 
themselves contain no carbon, together with the 
existence of conditions under which tlieir assimi- 
lation by plants can be efTected. We increase the 
produce of our cultivated fields, in caibon, by a 
supply oi^ lime, ashes, and marl, substances which 
can not furnish carbon to the plants, and yet it 
is indisputable, — being founded upon abundant 
experience, — that in these substances we furnish 
to the fields elements which greatly increase the 
bulk of their produce, and consequently the amount 
of carbon. 

If we admit these facts to be established, we 
can no longer doubt that a deficient produce o." 
carbon, or in other words the barrenness of a 
field does not depend upon carbonic acid, because 
we are able to increase the produce, to a certain 
degree, by a supply of substances which do not 
contain any carbon. The same source when 
the meadow and the forest are furnished with car- 
bon, is also open to our cultivated plants. The 
great object of agriculture, therefore, is to dis* 



SOURCE OF CARBOX. 155 

cover the means best adapted to enable these 
plants to assimilate tlie carbon of the atmosphere 
which exists in it as carbonic acid. In furnishing 
plants, therefore, with mineral elements, we give 
them the power to appropriate carbon from a 
source which is inexhaustible ; while in the 
absence of these elements the most abundant sup- 
ply of carbonic acid, or of decaying vegetable mat- 
UT would not increase the produce of a field. 

With an adequate and equal supply of these 
essential mineral constituents in the soil, the 
amount of carbonic acid absorbed by a plant from 
the atmosphere in a given time is limited by the 
quantity v^'hich is brought into contact with its 
organs of absorption. 

The withdrawal of carbonic acid from the at- 
mosphere by the vegetable organism takes place 
chiefly through its leaves ; this absorption requires 
the contact of the carbonic acid with their sur- 
face, or with the part of the plant by which it is 
absorbed. 

The quantity of carbonic acid absorbed in a 
given time is in direct proportion to the surface of 
the leaves, and the amount of carbonic acid con- 
tained in the air ; that is, two plants of the same 
kind, and the same extent of surface of absorption, 
in equal times and under equal conditions, absorb 
one and the same amount of carbon. 



SOURCE OF CARBON'. 156 

Iii an atmosphere containing a double propor- 
'.ion of carbonic acid, a plant absorbs, under the 
tame condition, twice the quantity of carbon. 
Boussingault observed, that the leaves of the vine, 
enclosed in a vessel, withdrew all the carbonic acid 
from a current of air which was passed through it, 
however great its velocity. (Dumas Le9on,p. 23.) 
Jf, therefore, we supply double the quantity of 
carbonic acid to one plant, the extent of the surface 
of which is only half that of another living in 
ordinary atmospheric air, the former will obtain 
and appropriate as much carbon as the latter. 
Hence results the effects of humus, and all decay- 
ing organic substances, upon vegetation. If we 
suppose all the conditions for the absorption of 
carbonic acid present, a young plant will increase 
in mass, in a limited time, only in proportion to its 
absorbing surface ; but if we create in the soil a 
new source of carbonic acid, by decaying vegetable 
substances, and the roots absorb in the same tin:*.': 
three times as much carbonic acid from the soil as 
the leaves derive from the atmosphere, the plant 
will increase in weight fourfold. This fourfold 
increase extends to the leaves, buds, stalks, &c., 
and in the increased extent of surface, the plant 
acquires an increased power of absorbing nourish- 
ment from the air, which continues in action far 
beyond the time when its derivation of carbonic 



SOURCE OF CARBON. 157 

acid through the roots ceases. Humus, as a source 
of carbonic acid in cvdtivated lands, is not only 
useful as a means of increasing the quantity of 
carbon — an effect which in most cases may be 
very indifferent for agricultural purposes — but the. 
mass of the plant having increased rapidly in a 
short time, space is obtained for the assimilation 
o\' the elements of the soil necessary for \ht for- 
mation of new leaves and branches. 

Water evaporates incessantly from the sur- 
face of the young plant ; its quantity is in direct 
proportion to the temperature and the extent 
of the surface. The numerous radical fibrilliae 
replace, like so many pumps, the evaporated 
water ; and so long as the soil is moist, or pene- 
trated with water, the indispensable elements 
of the soil, dissolved in the water, are supplied to 
the plant. The water absorbed by the plant evap- 
oratinsr in an aeriform state, leaves the saline and 
other mineral constituents within it. The relative 
proportion of these elements taken up by a plant, 
is greater the more extensive the surface and more 
abundant the supply of water ; where these are 
limited, the plant soon reaches its full growth, while 
if their supply is continued, a greater amount of 
elements necessary to enable it to appropriate 
atmospheric nourishment being obtained, its devel- 
opment proceeds much further. The quantity, or 

U 



158 LETTERS ON Clli:MISTRY. 

mass of seed produced, will correspond to the 
quantity of ndiieral constituents present in the 
plant, 'rhat plant, therefore, containing ihe most 
alkaline phosphates and earthy salts, will produce 
nwre or a greater weight of seeds than another 
which, in an equal lime, has absorbed less of them. 
We consequently observe, in a hot suiniaer, when 
a further supply of mineral ingredients from the 
soil ceases through want of water, that the height 
and strength of plants, as well as the development 
of their seeds, are in direct proportion to its ab- 
sorption of the elementary parts of the soil in 
the preceding epochs of its growth. 

The fertility of the year depends in general upon 
the temperature, and the moisture or dryness of 
the spring, if all the conditions necessary to the 
assimilation of the atmospheric nourishment be 
secured to our cultivated plants. The action of 
humus, then, as we have explained it above, is 
chiefly of value in gaining time. In agriculture, 
this must ever be taken into account ; and in this 
respect humus is of importance in favoring the 
growth of vegetables, cabbages, &:c. 

But the ceralia, and plants grown for their roots, 
meet on our fields, in the remains of the preceding 
crop, with a quantity of decaying vegetable sub- 
stances corresponding to their contents of mineral 
nutriment from the soil, and consequently with a 



SOURCE OF CARBON. 159 

quantity of carbonic acid adequate to their ac- 
celerated development in the spring. A further 
supply of carbonic acid, therefore, would be quite 
useless, without a corresponding increase of min- 
eral ingredients. 

From a morgen of good meadow land, 2,500 
pounds weight of hay, according to the best 
.agriculturists, are obtained on an average. This 
atnount is fnrnished without any supply of organic 
sul)stances, without manure containing carbon or 
nitrogen. liy irrigation, and the application of 
ashes or gypsum, double that amount will be 
grown. But assuming 2,500 pounds weight of 
hay to bo tiie maxitnum, we may calculate the 
amount of carbon and nitrogen derived from the 
atmosphere by the plarrts of meadows. 

According to elementary analysis, hfey, dried 
at a tempature of 100° Reaumur, contains 45.8 
per cent, of carbon, and 1.5 per cent, of nitrogen. 
14 per cent, of water retained by the hay, dried 
at common temperatures, is driven ofl' at 100°. 
2500 pounds weight of hay, therefore, corre- 
sponds to 2150 pounds, dried at 100°. This 
shows us, that 984 pounds of carbon, and 32.2 
pounds weight of nitrogen, have been obtained in 
the produce of one morgen of meadow-land. 
Supposing that this nitrogen has been absorbed 
by the plants in the form of ammonia, the atmo- 



160 LKTTERS ON CHEMISTRY. 

sphere contains 39.1 pounds weight of ammonia 
to every 3,640 pounds weight of carbonic acid 
(^=984 carbon, or 27 per cent.) ; or, in other words, 
to every 1,000 pounds weight of carbonic acid, 
U!j^Q pounds of ammonia, that is, to about y-QoVoo 
the weight of the air, or qq^qq of its volume. 

For every 100 parts of carbonic acid absorbed 
by the surface of the leaves, the plant receives 
from the atmosphere somewhat more than one 
part of ammonia. 

With every 1,000 pounds of carbon, we obtain — 

32 7-10 pounds of nitrogen- 



From a meadow 


. 


32 7- 


From cultivated fields — 




In wheat 




21.5 


Oais . 




22.3 


Jlye . 




15.2 


Potaioes 




34.1 


Beetroot 




39.1 


Clover 




. "U 


Peas 




62 



Boussingault obtained from his farm at Bechel- 
bronn, in Alsace, in five years, in the shape of 
potatoes, wheat, clover, turnips, and oats, 8383 of 
carbon, and 250.7 nitrogen. In the following five 
yeais, as beetroot, wheat, clover, turnips, oats, an 1 
rye, 8,192 of carbon, and 284.2 of nitrogen. In a 
further course of six years, potatoes, wheat, clo- 
ver, turnips, peas, and rye, 10,949 of carbon, 356.6 



SOURCE )F NITROGEN. 161 

of nitrogen ; in sixteen years, 27,424 carbon, 858.5 
nitrogen: which gives, for every 1,000 carbon, 
31.3 nitnjgen. 

From these interesting and unquestionable facts, 
wc may deduce some conchisions of the highest 
importance in their application to agriculture. 

1. We observe that the relative proportions of 
carbon and nitrogen, stand in a fixed relation to 
the surface of the leaves. Those plants in which 
all the nitrogen may be said to be concentrated 
in the seeds, as the ceralia, contain on the whole 
less nitrogen than the leguminous plants, peas and 
clover. 

2. The produce of nitrogen on a meadow 
which receives no nitrogenized manure, is great- 
er than that of a field of wheat which has been 
manured. 

3. The produce of nitrogen in clover and peas, 
which agriculturists will acknowledge require no 
nitrogenized manure, is far-greater than that of a 
potato or turnip field, which is abundantly sup- 
plied with such manures. 

Lastly : and this is the most curious deduction 
to be derived from the above facts. If we plant 
potatoes, wheat, turnips, peas, and clover (plants 
containing potash, lime, and silex), upon the same 
land, three times manured, we gain in sixteen 

14* 



162 LETTERS ON CHEMISTRY. 

years, for a given quantity of carbon, the same 
proportion of nitrogen which we receive from 
a meadow which has received no nitrogenized 
manure. 

On a morgen of meadow land, we obtain in 
plants, containing silex, lime, and potash, 984 
carbon, 32.2 nitrogen. On a morgen of cuUivated 
land, in an average of sixteen years, in plants con- 
taining the same mineral elements, silex, lime, and 
potash, 857 carbon, 26.8 nitrogen. 

If we add the carbon and nitrogen of the 
leaves of the beetroot, and the stalks and leaves 
of the potatoes, which have not been taken into 
account, it still remains evident that the culti- 
vated fields, notwithstanding the supply of car- 
bonaceous and nitrogenized manures, produced 
no more carbon and nitrogen than an equal sur- 
face of meadow land supplied only with mineral 
elements. 

What, then, is the rationale of the effect of 
manure — of the solid and fluid excrements of ani- 
mals ? 

This question can now be satisfactorily answered : 
that effect is the restoration of the elementary con- 
stituents of the soil which have been gradually 
drawn from it in the shape of grain and cattle. If 
the land I am speaking of had not been manured 
during those 16 years, not more than one half, oi 



SOURCE OF NTITROGEN. 163 

perhaps than one third part of the carbon and nitro- 
gen would have been produced. We owe it to the 
animal excrements, that it equalled in production 
the meadow-land, and this, because they restored 
the mineral ingredients of the soil removed by the 
crops. All that the supply of manure accom- 
plished, was to prevent the land from becoming 
poorer in these, than the meadow which produces 
2500 pounds of hay. We withdraw from the 
meadow in xhir. hay as large an amount of mineral 
substances as we do in one harvest of grain, and 
we know that the fertility of the meadow is just 
as dependant upon the restoration of these ingre- 
dients to its soil, as the cultivated land is upon 
manures. Two meadows of equal surface, con- 
taining unequal quantities of inorganic elements 
of nourishment— other conditions being equal — are 
very unequally fertile ; that which possesses most, 
furnishes most hay. If we do not restore to a 
meadow the withdrawn elements, its fertility de- 
creases. But its fertility remains unimpaired, 
with a due supply of animal excrements, fluid and 
solid, and it not only remains the same, but may 
be increased by a supply of mineral substances 
alone, such as remain after the combustion of 
ligneous plants and other vegetables ; namely, 
ashes. Ashes represent the whole nourishment 
which vegetables receive from the soil. By fur- 



164 LETTERS OX CHEMISTRY. 

nishing tliem in sufficient quantities to our mead 
ows, we give to the plants growing on them the 
power of condensing and absorhing carbon and 
nitrogen by their surface. May not the eflec of 
the solid and fluid excrements, which are the ashes 
of plants and grains, which have undergone com- 
bustion in the bodies of animals and of man, be 
dependant upon the same cause ? Should not the 
fertihty, resulting from their application, be alto- 
gether independent of the ammonia they contain ? 
Would not their effect be precisely the same in 
promoting the fertility of cultivated plants, if we 
had evaporated the urine, and dried and burned the 
solid excrements ? Surely the ceralia and legu- 
minous plants which we cultivate must derive 
their carbon and nitrogen from the same source 
whence the graminea and leguminous plants of the 
meadows obtain them ! No doubt can be enter- 
tained of their capability to do so. 

In Virginia, upon the lowest calculation, 22 lbs. 
weight of nitrogen were taken on the average, 
yearly, from every morgen of the wheat-fields. 
This would amount, in 100 years, to 2,200 lbs. 
weight. If this were derived from the soil, every 
morgen of it must have contained the equivalent 
of 110,000 lbs. weight of animal excremeits (as- 
suming the latter, when dried, at the temperature 
of boiling water, to contain 2 per cent.). 



SOURCE OF NITHOGEN, 165 

In Hungary, as I remarked in a former Letter, 
obacco and wheat have been grown upon the 
same field for centuries, without any supply of 
nitrogenized manure. Is it possible that the nitro- 
gen essential to, and enterLig into, the composi- 
tion of these crops, could have been drawn from 
the soil ? 

Every year renews the foliage and fruits of our 
forests of beech, oak, and chestnuts ; the leaves, 
the acorns, the chestnuts, are rich in nitrogen ; so 
are cocoa-nuts, bread-fruit, and other tropical pro- 
ductions. This nitrogen is not supplied by man. 
Can it indeed be derived from any other source 
than the atmosphere '^ 

In whatever ybrm the nitrogen supplied to plants 
may be contained in the atmosphere, in whatever 
state it may be when absorbed, from the atmo- 
sphere it must have been derived. Did not the 
fields of Virginia receive their nitrogen from the 
same source as wild plants 1 

Is the supply of nitrogen in the excrements of 
animals quite a matter of indifference, or do we 
receive back from our fields a quantity of the ele- 
ments of blood corresponding to this supply ? 

The researches of Boussingault have solved this 
problem in the most satisfactory manner. If, in 
his grand experiments, the manure whicii he gave 
to his fields was in the same state, that is, dried al 



166 LETTERS ON CHEMISTRY. 

1 10*^ in a vacuum, as it was when analyzed, these 
fields received, in 16 years, 1300 pounds of nitro- 
gen. But we know that by drying all the nitro- 
gen escapes which is contained in solid animal 
excrements, as volatile carbonate of ammonia. In 
this calculation the nitrogen of the urine, which 
by decomposition is converted into carbonate of 
ammonia, has not been included. If we suppose 
it amounted to half as much as that in the dried 
excrements, this would make the quantity of ni- 
trogen supplied to the fields 1950 pounds. 

In 16 years, however, as we have seen, only 
1517 pounds of nitrogen, was contained in their 
produce of grain, straw, roots, et cetera — that is, 
far less than was supplied in the manure ; and in 
the same period the same extent of surface of 
good meadow-land (one hectare = a Hessian mor- 
gen), which received no nitrogen in manure, 2060 
pounds of nitrogen. 

It is well known that in Egypt, from the de- 
ficiency of wood, the excrement of animals is 
dried, and forms the principal fuel, and that the 
nitrogen from the soot of this excrement was, for 
many centuries, imported into Europe in the form 
of sil ammoniac, until a method of manufacturing 
this substance was discovered at the end of the 
last century by Gravenhorst of Brunswick. The 
fields in the Delta of the Nile are supplied with 



SOURCE OF NITROGEN. 167 

no other animal manure than the ashes of the burnt 
excrements, and 3'et they have been proverbially 
fertile from a period earlier than the first dawn of 
history, and that fertility continues to the present 
day as admirable as it was in the earliest times. 
These fields receive, every year, from the inunda- 
tion of the Nile, a new soil, in its mud deposited 
over their surface, rich in those mineral elements 
which have been withdrawn by the crops of the 
previous harvest. The mud of the Nile contains 
as little nitrogren, as the mud derived from the 
Alps of Switzerland, which fertilizes our fields 
after the inundations of the Rhine. If this fer- 
tilizing mud owed this property to nitrogenizf-1 
matters ; what enormous beds of animal and ve- 
getable exi.'vice and remains ought to exist in the 
mountains of Africa, in heights extending beyond 
the limits of ])erpetual snow, where no bird, no ani- 
mal finds food, from the absence of all vegetation ! 
Abundant evidence in support of the important 
truth we are discussing, may be derived from 
other well-known facts. Thus, the trade of Hol- 
land in cheese maybe adduced in proof and illus- 
tration thereof. We know that cheese is derived 
from the plants which serve as food for cows. 
The meadow-lands of Holland derive the nitrogen 
of cheese from the same source as with us ; that 
18, the atmosphere. The milch cows of Holland 



168 LETTERS ON CHEMISTRY. 

remain day and night on the grazing-grounds, and 
therefore, in their fluid and solid excrements re- 
urn directly to the soil all the salts and earthy 
elements of their food : a very insignificant quan- 
tity only is exported in the cheese. The fertility 
of these meadows can, therefore, be as little im- 
paired as our own fields, to which we restore all 
the elements of the soil, as manure, which have 
been withdrawn in the crops. The only differ- 
ence is, in Holland they remain on the field, while 
we collect them at home and carry them, from 
tirao to time, to the fields. 

The nitrogen of the fluid and solid excrements 
of cow s, is derived from the meadow-plants, which 
receive it from the atmosphere ; the nitrogen of 
the cheese also must be drawn from the same 
source. The meadows of Holland have, in the 
lapse of centuries, produced millions of hundred- 
weights of cheese. Thousands of hundredweights 
are annually exported, and yet the productiveness 
of the meadows is in no way diminished, although 
they never receive more nitrogen than they origi- 
nally contained. 

Nothing then can be more certain than the fact, 
that an exportation of nitrogenized products does 
not exhaust the fertility of a country ; inasm^'c'i 
as it is not the soil, but the atmosphere, which 
furnishes its vegetation with nitrogen. It follows 



SOURCE OF NITROGKN. 169 

consequently, that we can not increase the fertility 
of our fields by a supply of nitrogenized manure, 
or by salts of ammonia, but rather that their prod- 
uce increases or diminishes in a direct ratio with 
the supply of mineral elements capable of assimi- 
lation. The formation of the constituent elements 
of blood — that is, of the nitrogenized principles in 
our cultivated plants — depends upon the presence 
of inorganic matters in the soil, without which no 
nitrogen can be assimilated, even when there is a 
most abundant supply. The ammonia contained 
in animal excrements exercises a favorable effect, 
inasmuch as it is accompanied by the other sub- 
stances necessary to accomplish its transition into 
the elements of blood. If we supply ammonia 
associated with all the conditions necessary to its 
assimilation, it ministers to the nourishment of the 
plants ; but if this artificial supply is not given, 
they can deriv^e all the needed nitrogen from the 
atmosphere — a source, every loss from which is 
restored by the decomposition of the bodies of 
dead animals and the decay of plants. Ammonia 
certainly favors and accelerates the growth of 
plants in all soils, wherein all the conditions of its 
assimilation are united ; but it is altogether with- 
out effect, as respects the production of the ele- 
ments of blood where any of these conditions are 
wanting. We can suppose that asparagin, the ac 

15 



170 LETTERS OS CHEMISTRY. 

ijve constituent oi aspar a <r us, the mucilaginous root 
of the marsh-rnaUow, the nitrogenized and sulphur- 
ous ingredients of niHstard-seeJ, and of all crucifer- 
ous plants, may originate without the aid of the 
mineral elements of the soil. But if the princi- 
ples of those vegetables, which serve as food, could 
be generated without the co-operation of the min- 
eral elements of blood, without potash, soda, phos- 
phate of soda, phosphate of lime, they would l)e 
useless to us and to herbivorous animals as food ; 
they would not fulfil the purpose for which the 
wisdom of the Creator has destined them. In the 
absence of alkalies and the phosphates, no blood, 
no milk.-no muscular fibre, can be formed. With- 
out phosphate of lime, our horses, sheep, and cat- 
tle, would be without bones. 

In the urine and in the solid excrements of an- 
imals we carry ammonia, and consequently nitro- 
gen, to our cultivated plants, and this nitrogen is 
accompanied by all the mineral elements of food 
exactly in the same proportions in which both are 
contained in the plants w^hich served as food to 
the animals, or, what is the same, in those pro- 
portions in which both can serve as nourishment 
to a new generation of plants, to which both are 
essential. 

The eflect of an artificial supply of ammonia, as 
a source of nitrogen, is, therefore, precisely analo- 



RATIONAL AGRICULTURE, Hi 

SOUS to that of humus as a source of carbonic 
acid — it is limited to a gain of time ; that is, it 
accelerates the development of plants. This is 
of great importance, and should always be taken 
into account in gardening, especially in the treat- 
ment of the kitchen-garden ; and as much as pos- 
sible in agriculture on a large scale, where the 
time occupied in the growth of the plants cultiva- 
ted is of importance. 

When we have exactly ascertained the quantity 
of ashes left after the combustion of cultivated 
plants which have grown upon all varieties of soil, 
and have obtained correct analyses of these ashes, 
we shall learn with certainty which of the con- 
stituent elements of the plants are constant Lnd 
which are chano-eable, and we shall arrive at an 
exact knowledge of the sum of all the ingredisnts 
we withdraw from the soil in the different -rops. 

With this knowledge the farmer will be ^bie to 
keep an exact record of the produce of his fields 
in harvest, like the account-book of a well-regula- 
ted manufactory ; and then by a simple calculaiion 
he can determine precisely the substances he must 
supply to each field, and the quantity of these, in 
order to restore their fertility. Ho will be able to 
express, in pounds weight, how much of this or 
that element he must give to the soil in order tfc 
augmen ns fertility for any given kind of plants. 



172 LETTERS ON CHEMISTRY. 

Those researches and experiments are the great 
desideratum of the present time. To the united 
efibrts of the chemists of all countries we may 
confidently look for a solution of .these great ques- 
tions, and by the aid of enlightened agriculturists 
we shall arrive at a rational system of gardening, 
horticulture, and agriculture, applicable to every 
country and all kinds of soil, and which will be 
based upon the immutable fe\'nd9*.'on of observed 
facts and philosopl?ioAl ifilvvt".'^ 



SOLTRCnS OF PHOSPHATES. 173 



LETTER XVI. 

My dear sir : My recent researches into the 
constituent ingredients of onr cultivated fields 
have led me to the conclusion that, of all the ele- 
ments furnished to plants by the soil and minister- 
ing to their nourishment, the phosphate of lime,- 
or, rather, the phosphates generally, must be re- 
garded as the most important. 

In order to furnish you with a clear idea of the 
importance of the phosphates, it may be sufficient 
to remind you of the fact, that the blood of man 
and animals, beside common salt, always contains 
alkaline and earthy phosphates. If we burn blood 
and examine the ashes which remain, we find 
certain parts of them soluble in water, and others 
insoluble. The soluble parts are, common salt 
and alkaline phosphates ; the insoluble consist 
of phosphate of lime, phosphate of magnesia, and* 
oxide of iron. 

These mineral ingredients of the blood — with- 
15* 



174 LETTERS ON CHEMISTRY. 

out the presence of Avhicli in the food the forma- 
tion of blood is impossible — both man and ani- 
mans derive, either immediately or mediately, 
through other animals, from vegetable substances 
used as food ; they had been constituents of 
vegetables, they had been parts of the soil up- 
on which the vegetable substances were devel- 
oped. 

If we compare the amount of the phosphates in 
different vegetable substances with each other, we 
discover a great variety, while there is scarcely 
any ashes of plants altogether devoid of them, and 
those parts of plants which experience has taught 
us are the most nutritious, contain the largest 
proportion. To these belong all seeds and grain, 
especially the varieties of bread-corn, peas, beans, 
and lentils. 

It is a most curious fact that, if we incinerate 
grain or its flour, peas, beans, and lentils, we ob- 
tain ashes, which are distinguished from the ashes 
of all other parts of vegetables by the absence of 
alkaline carbonates The ashes of these seeds, 
when recently prepared, do not effervesce with 
acids ; their soluble ingredients consist solely of 
alkaline phosphates, the insoluble parts of phos- 
phate of lime, phosphate of magnesia, and oxide 
of iron ; consequently, of the very same salts 
which are contained in blood, and which are ab- 



IMPORTANCE OF PHOSPHATES. 175 

solutely indispensable to its formation. We are 
thus broiiorht to the further indisputable conclusion 
that no seed suitable to become food for man 
and animals can be formed in any plant with- 
out the presence and co-operation of the phos- 
phates. A field in which phosphate of lime, or 
the alkaline phosphates form no part of the soil, 
is totally incapable of producing grain, peas, or 
beans. ^ 

An enormous quantity of these substances in- 
dispensable to the nourishment of plants, is annu- 
ally withdrawn from the soil and carried into great 
towns, in the shape of flour, cattle, et cetera. It 
is certain that this incessant removal of the phos- 
phates must tend to exhaust the land and diminish 
its capability of producing grain. The fields of 
Great Britain are in a state of progressive ex- 
haustion from this cause, as is proved by the 
rapid extension of the cultivation of turnips and 
mangel-wurzel — plants which contain the least 
amount of the phosphates, and therefore require 
the smallest quantity for their development. 
These roots contain 80° to 92° per cent, of wa- 
ter. Their great bulk makes the amount of prod- 
uce fallacious, as respects their adaptation to the 
food of animals, inasmuch as their contents of the 
ingredients of the blood — that is, of substances 
which can be transformed into flesh — stands 



176 LETTERS ON CHEMISTRY. 

in a direct ratio to their amount of phosphates, 
without which neither hlood nor flesh can be 
formed. 

Our fields will become more and more defi- 
cient in these essential ingredients of food, in all 
localities where custom and habits do not admit 
the collection of the fluid and solid excrements 
of man, and their application to the purposes of 
agriculture. In a former letter I showed you 
how great a waste of phosphates is unavoidable 
in England, and referred to the well-known fact 
that the importation of bones restored in a most 
admirable manner the fertility of the fields "ex- 
hausted from this cause. In the year 1827 the 
importation of bones for manure amounted to 
forty thousand tons, and Huskisson estimated 
their value to be from one hundred thousand to 
two hundred thousand pounds sterling. The im- 
portation is still greater at present, but it is far 
from being sufficient to supply tho waste. 

Another proof of the efficacy of the phos- 
phates in restoring fertility to exhausted land is 
afforded by the use of the guano — a manure 
which, although of recent introduction into Eng- 
land, has found such general and extensive appli- 
cation. 

We believe that the importation of one hundred 
weight of guano is equivalent to the importation 



IMPORTANCE OF PHOSPHATES. 177 

of eight hundred weight of wheat — the hundred 
weight of guano assumes, in a time which can be 
accurately estimated, the form of a q-iantity of 
food corresponding to eight hundred weight of 
wheat. The same estimate is applicable in the 
valuation of bones. 

If it were possible to restore to the soil of 
England and Scotland the phosphates which du- 
ring the last fifty years have been carried to the 
sea by the Thames and the Clyde, it would be 
equivalent to manuring with millions of hundred 
weights of bones, and the produce of the land 
would increase one third, or perhaps double itself, 
in five to ten years. 

We can not doubt that the same result would 
follow, if the price of the guano admitted the 
application of a quantity to the surface of the 
fields, containing as much of the phosphates as 
have been withdrawn from them in the same pe- 
riod. 

If a rich and cheap source of phosphate of lime 
and the alkaline phosphates were open to Eng- 
land, there can be no question that the importation 
of foreign corn might be altogether dispensed with 
after a short time. For these materials England 
is at present dependant upon foreign countries, 
and the high price of guano and of bones prevents 
their general applicatioi , and in sufficient quan- 



178 LETTERS ON CHEMISTRY. 

tity. Every year the trade in these substancos 
must decrease, or their price will rise as the de- 
mand for them increases. 

According to these premises, it can not be dis- 
puted that the annual expense of Great Britain 
for the importation of bones and guano is equiva- 
lent to a duty on corn — with this difference only, 
that the amount is paid to foreigners in money. 

To restore the disturbed equilibrium of consti- 
tution of the soil — to fertilize her fields — England 
requires an enormous supply of animal excre- 
ments ; and it must therefore excite considerable 
nterest to learn that she possesses, beneath her 
soil, beds of fossil gnano^ strata of animal excre- 
ments, in a slate which will probably allow of 
their being employed as a manure at a very small 
expense. 

The coprolithes discovered by Dr. Buckland (a 
discovery of the highest interest to Geology), are 
these excrements ; and it seems extremely prob- 
able that in these strata England possesses the 
means of supplying the place of recent bones, and 
therefore the principal conditions of improving 
agriculture — oi restoring and exaUing the fertility 
of her fields. 

In the autumn of 1842, Dr. Buckland pointed 
out to me a bed of copiolithes in the neighborhood 
of Clifton, from half to one foot thick, enclosed in 



FOSSIL MANURE. 17.9 

a limestone formation, extending as a brown stripe 
in the rocks, for miles along the banks of the 
Severn. The limestone marl of Lyme Regis 
consists, for the most part, of one fourth part of 
fossil excrements and bones. The sjime are 
abundant in the lias of Bath, Eastern, and Broad- 
way Hill, near Ev^ersham. Dr. Buckland men- 
tions beds, several miles in extent, the substance 
of which consists, in many places, of a fourth part 
of coprolithes. 

Pieces of the limestone rock of Clifton, near 
Bristol, which is rich in coprolithes and organic 
remains, fragments of bones, teeth, &c., were 
subjected to analysis, and were found to contain 
above 18 per cent, of phosphate of lime. If this 
limestone is burned, and brought in that state to 
the fields, it must be a perfect substitute for bones, 
the efficacy of which as a manure does not de- 
pend, as has been generally but erroneously c ■/• 
posed, upon the nitrogenized matter wh'r.h t^ cv 
contain, but on their phosphate of lim3. 

The osseous breccia found in many pares of 
England deserves especial attention, as it is high 
y probable that in a short time it will become an 
important article of commerce. 

What a curious and interesting subject for con- 
templation ! In the remains of an extinct animal 
world, England is to find the means of increasing 



180 LETTERS ON CHEMISTRY. 

her wealth in agricultural produce, as she has 
already found the great support of her manufac- 
turing industry in fossil fuel — the preserved mat- 
ter of primeval forests — the remains of a vegetable 
world. May this expectation be realized ! and 
may her excellent population be thus redeemed 
from poverty and misery 



DOG AND GUN; 



% Jrli) f oosc Cljajtci's on <iIjootin(|. 



AMONG WHICH "WILL BE FOUND 



SOME ANECDOTES AND INCIDENTS. 



BY JOHNSON J. HOOPER, 

OF MONTGOMaiY, AIJl. 



"And T promise you shootinge, by my judgment, is the most honoste pastime of 
all, and suche one, I am sure, of all other, that hindereth learninge litel or noihinge 
at all, whatsoever you and some other saye." — A?cham — Old English Writer. 

See how the well-taught pointer leads the way ; 
The scent grows warm ; he stops ; lie springs the prey ; 
The fluttering covey from the stubble rise, 
And on swift wing divide the sounding ski<^s !" 

[Gay — Rural Sports. 



NEW YORK: 
A. 0. MOOEE, AGRICULTURAL BOOK PUBLISHER, 

(late C. M. 8AXT0N & CO.,) 

NO. 140 FULTON STREET. 

18 5 8. 



Entered nojoriiing to Act of Congress, in the year 1856, by 

C. M. SAXTON & CO MP AX Y. 

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States, in and for the 

Southern District of New York 



EDWARD O.JENKINS 

PRINTER AND STEREOTVPKa, 

2G Franiiforti St., N T. 



DEDICATION. 



TO HENRY WILLIAM HERBERT, ESQ., 

"the cedars," new JERSEY. 

Dear Sir : Knowing you only through your works, I 
take the liberty of inscribing to you these ''Loose 
Chapters^' on a subject which your own pen has so 
fully adorned, conscious that the chief merit in them is 
to "be found in those portions which you, and other 
"shooting" friends, have contributed to them. If this 
little book incites the young Sportsman to read your 
own unequalled ''Field Sports,'' it will have accomplished 
its main purpose. 

Respectfully, 

Your obedient Servant, 

THE AUTHOR 



OONTEISTTS. 



CHAPTER I. 
The Gentleman's Amusement, ------ 7 

CHAPTER 11. 

How TO CHOOSE A GoOD GUN, -.----- 13 

CHAPTER III. 
On THE Charging of a Gun, - - - - 19 

CHAPTER IV. 
The Setter and Pointer, - 28 

CHAPTER V. 
Field Training, .-38 

CHAPTER VI. 
Remarks on Training, - - - - - 44 

(V) 



VI CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER VII. 
Advice to the Sportsman, 52 

CHAPTER VIIL 
On the Shooting of Quail, - - - . . 60 

CHAPTER IX. 
Duck Shooting — ^The Mallard, 66 

CHAPTER X. 
A Woodcock Story — Quail, 71 

CHAPTER XI. 
Partridge Shooting, 76 

CHAPTER XII. 
Treatment op the Distemper, - - - - 90 

CHAPTER III. 
Snipe Shooting in Florida, - - - - 95 



DOG AND GUN. 



CHAPTER I. 
THK GENTLEMAN'S AMUSEMENT. 

My young sporting friends will observe, that in my title I 
fortify my own opinion of the manliness and innocence of 
Field Sports with a classic authority, while the quotation 
from the bard, shows our theme not wanting in poetic 
dignity. In my day I have heard the delightful pastime 
much reviled by prejudiced ignorance and under-bred and 
over-done morality ; but while the advocate of Dog and 
Gun is backed by old Ascham, and a host of such ancient 
worthies, and finds among the writers of the present day 
such aid as is afforded by the graphic and versatile pen of 
Herbert, he may well afford to treat all cavillers, high or 
low, with a quiet curl of his lip. I need only add, that the 
shooting of game birds, over pointers and setters, has been, 
time out of mind, the g en' him 171* s amusement ; so much so, 
that I would hardly hesitate to make some guess con- 
cerning any man's antecedents, who should cross a 
stubble with me one of these crispy, brown October 
mornings. 

Getting towards the main topic as speedily as possible, 
T will remark in a general way that, in this region, game 
proper may be considered as limited to the Quail and two 
or three varieties of Duck. Both Weodcock and Snipe, 

(7) 



8 DOG AND GU\. 

tliougli increasing latterly, have been too sparsely scattered 
through Eastern Alabama, to be worthy of particular atten- 
tion. Here and there, there are some few grounds, in the 
neighborhood of large streams, where a day's sport may 
be had, at the proper season, shooting the latter. It is 
likely, however, judging by the past, that in a few years 
both will afford fine amusement to the Alabama sportsman.* 
At present, I suspect that m}" friends, Col. Augustus Brooks 
and A. R. Meslier, Esq., bag more snipe and cock, in the 
immediate neighborhood of Mobile, than are killed in all 
the rest of the State put together. If, in this idea, I am 
mistaken, I shall be very much obliged to any friend Avho 
can furnish me an authoritative correction. Indeed, in 
all that I write on the subject of sporting, I would have it 
remembered I bring a very limited experience to bear; 
and I fulfil a promise made, some time ago, to several 
young friends, as much to direct their attention to the 
works of Frank Forester (Herbert), Hawker (Am. Ed. 
by W. T. Porter, Esq.), " Dinks," and others, as to con- 
vey a few grains of information suitable to this latitude, and 
not perhaps to be readily picked up in sporting books. 

It may be added, that whoso takes the Spirit of the 
Times Villi find that, from week to week, during the appro- 
priate seasons, Mr. Porter's correspondents furnish abund- 

^ Since the foregoing paragraph first appeared in print, I have 
been informed by my friend, H. C. S., Esq., of Montgomery, that 
as fine snipe-shooting as the world affords may be had, in the pro- 
per season, in the prairies south of Montgomery. In " tlie bend" of 
the Alabama, ojiposite the city, also, I am informed, that a bag of 
fifty may sometimes be secured by a good shot. Perhaps before I 
have done with the series, some friend will furnish a " full, true 
and particular" account of the best localities for the bird, and the 
mode of shootiog them. As I understand it now, dogs are not used. 
While on the subject of snipe, I may remark that the writer flushed 
and shot a solitary bird, on the 23d Dec. ult., on the edge of a duck- 
pond, not very far from Montgomery. He was an excellent case. 



THK QUAIL. 9 

ance of facts, feats, and general information in the sporting 
line, a great deal of which is really valuable, as throwing 
light on the history and habits of the game of the country. 

To return from a digression : The Qu^il is our chief, 
most reliable game bird in this section. A brave fellov,^ he 
is too, and worthy to be properly known and called by 
his own true name, and not by his universal misnomer, 
Partridge. Let all true sportsmen call him aright — leaving 
it to the pot-hunter who shoots the bevy as it huddles on 
the ground, or murders the whistling cock on the fence or 
stump, and the clown who nets or traps what he cannot 
fairly kill, to apply to him a name for which there is no 
owner on this continent. Every one who writes on sports 
of the field has his rules; and my Hule the First is — 
Call Quail, Quail ! Persistently give him his true name, 
and you are, young reader, one step nearer sportsmanship 
than the commune vulgus who kill him foully and serve 
him more foully, to wit : in hog's lard. Presently I shall 
tell you what I know of the habits of the bird, and when 
you have added your own observation thereunto, you will 
quite probably attain to killing him in good style, and to 
knowing how to have him dressed with a half-teaspoonful 
of pale brandy, permeated through his plump breast, ac- 
cording to the recipe of my friend. Dr. E. B. J., of Macon. 

Of the ducks that visit us here (except the Canvas- 
hack, and some other varieties in Mobile Bay, about 
which I knov/ nothing, but of which I should like to re- 
ceive information from those who do), incomparably the 
finest is that old stand-by, the Mallard. Shot, or only to 
he shot, he is the duck of our waters ; whereby, I mean 
that the sport he affords, on the river or the table, is supe- 
rior to that we derive from any of the genus Anas. Next 
to him, the Blue-winged Teal is considered generally to 
rank. Then comes the Wood or Summer Duck, known 
generally in the country as the Striped-head. There are 
1* 



10 DOG AND GUN. 

a few other species, less common, that I may refer to 
hereafter. 

I have mentioned now the different varieties of game 
about which, as it respects their habits and the modes of 
killing, I propose to write, in these discursive essays. As 
I go along, I hope to get aid from more experienced per- 
sons ; and I especially ask it from those who have signi- 
fied a willingness to contribute to the Mail* on the subject 
of Svcrting. 

It Avill be well enough to close this chapter with some 
remarks on 

SPORTING TERMS. 

It may be here observed, that there is more than ap- 
pears, at first blush. In uniformity of sporting nomencla- 
ture. Without looking at all to the fact, that the sports- 
man's associations leak out by the terms of art which he 
uses, just as the ill-bred fellow is detected by the ordinary 
dialect he affects, it is desirable that persons pursuing 
field-sports, in any given section of country, should adopt 
the same phraseology, for reasons growing out of the 
positive inccnreuicnce of want of uniformity. To illustrate : 
A has been accustomed all his life to the use of the proper 
word, to/io! to bring his dog to a stand. He can no more 
— in ninety instances out of the hundred — bring himself 
to substitute the word heed ! when a-field, than he can fly. 
Biit he gets a dog broken by some ignorant trainer, which 
has been taught to obey this slang word of command ; 
and by the end of the week, he has Dash thoroughly con- 
fused between toJio ! and heed ! — and himself just about 
as much so. Or, B lends a young dog (broken to the 
slang word), to a friend, because he knows that friend is 
an accomplislied sportsman, for a day's shooting. The 

*"^ A newspaper published at Moutgomary, Ala. , by the author. 



SPORTIXG TERMS. 11 

friend discovers that Plato is rather eagerly pressing a 
running bevy, and with regulated, steady voice, not loud, 
gives the order, toho! Plato is probably expecting the 
word he was taught, and hearing it not, but another in its 
stead, springs in and flushes — and, possibly, runs a quar- 
ter of a mile before he can be brought in. The friend 
trounces him severely, the dog the while only vaguely con- 
scious of a fault — for his mind is not carried back to the 
disobeying of a command he was previously taught to 
obey. There you have it : the shooter curses the dog for 
an ill-taught mongrel (when he is, perhaps, a capital 
young pointer, only a trifle heady), and sets him back in 
his education, by allowing him to flush and by the whip- 
ping, fully half a season. To illustrate again : you might 
as well break horses as dogs to diverse words of command. 
Add to all this, the convenience to those* avIio interchange 
opinions, theories, experiences, on the subject of shooting, 
through the press, or conversationally, and I think the 
argument becomes irresistible in favor of a Uniform 
Sporting Nomenclature. 

Mr. Herbert's work on Field Sports is the standard in 
this country, on this and coguate subjects. I quote from 
it, as many of the technical terms of the art as are neces- 
sary for the range I propose to cover : 

Quail, a single hatching . ... A Bevy. 

Snipe, "''.... A Brood. 
Woodcock, '< " .... A Brood. 

Quail, several hatchings together . A Pack. 

Quail, less than grown, are . . . Squeakers. 

Snipe, flocking together, are . . A Whisp. 

Wild Duck, a large flock, is . . .A Team. 

Wild Duck, a small flock, is . . A Plump. 

Teai, a number is . . • . .A Flock. 

Two Quail, make .... A Brace. 

" Woodcock, ^ 

" Snipe, or > make . . .A Couple. 

" Ducks, ) 



12 DOG AND GUx\. 

Two Pointers or Setters, are . A Brace. 

Three " " ... A Leash. 

7^0 make a Bird Dog stand . . . Toho ! 

" " drop to shot . . Charge ! 

" " come behind . Heel ! 

" " move caiitionslv Steady ! 

" " rise from the charge Hold Up ! 

" " hunt for dead bird . Seek Dead! 

" " bring in dead after 

pointing it . . Fetch ! 

Having given thns much from Herbert's Snorting No- 
mcnclature, I may add tliat a dog is said to quarter his 
p-onnd, NOT " to hunt about the field ;" he breaks his 
charge, and docs not "jump up and run after the birds." 
He retrieves game when lie brings it in. He Jlushes the 
levy (if he is ill-behavedj) and does not " scare up the 
flock." The single bird sometimes towers, (^. e. flies very 
high and almost perpendicularly), if shot through the 
brain or heart. The bevy generally Jiies to covert when 
disturbed, but the sportsman marks them down. If he is a 
good shot, he hags quite a number. 

My young readers will remember my J^ule the First : 
Call Quail, Quail ! 

And here I will add another almost as short. It is 
founded on the fact that there is no such thing as a Par- 
tridge, on the whole broad continent — a fact that taboos 
to the American sportsman the word covey. I knoAv that 
far better sportsmen than I am, habitually use it ; but it 
is a custom we should *' reform altogether." My Rule the 
Second, then, is : Call a Bevy of Quail, A Bevy of 
Quail ! 



CHAPTER II. 
H:o\^ TO CHOOSE A aooD auN. 

The prime necessity of a young sportsman, is, of 
course, a good gun. If he has plenty of money, there 
need be little difficulty in supplying himself, quite speed- 
ily, with an excellent article. He has but to get a Ti-iend, 
or some reliable business man, not in the trade of selling 
guns, to import him one from the workshop of Westley 
Riohards, or Purday, or Moore, or some other crack Eng- 
lish maker, and the thing is done. Such a gun, reliable 
and perfectly well-finished, will cost from $300 to $500. 
Frank Forester tells us that guns, a good deal resembling 
this fine English work (and really being of English manu- 
facture), put up in very nice mahogany cases, with velvet 
lining, may be bought for from $75 to $150. Hundreds 
of toese guns are sold annually, in hardware and other 
stores. They are called by Forester Brumagem ware, 
taking the name from a corruption of Birviwgham (Eng- 
land), where a vast deal of such showy but unreliable 
stuff is fabricated. By the way, Richards is the only 
Birmingham maker of any repute, and it is said of him, 
in these latter days, that his barrels are too soft. At any 
rate, his reputation is on the decline. Manton (the suc- 
cessor, of course, of old Joe Manton), is a fourth rate 
maker. There are a dozen or more, however, who are 
said to make as good guns as " old Joe" ever did, and 
there is no difficulty in getting the article, provided you 
are able and willing to pay for it ; but the best informed 
think it bad policy to import a gan which costs under 

(13) 



14 DOG AND GUN. 

T300. Even tliat is rather low. If unable to stand these 
figures, the better plan, accorcllng to Herbert, is to get 
Constable, of Philadelphia, or John MuUin, of 16 Ann 
street, New York, to build you one. Of the former, I 
know nothing, except by reputation ; but of Mr. Mullin I 
can speak, after trying his work, with the utmost confi- 
dence. He built me a gun, a little more than a year ago, 
at the instance of my friend, Mr. Porter, of the Spirit of 
tJie Times, which comes up fully to all he engaged it 
should do. I believe that his forte is the making of the 
heavier descriptions of ban-els, especially for bay and 
river duck-shooting. His work is perfectly neat, and 
while, of course, it wants the extreme finish of the costly 
English gun, is to the full as honest a shooter. And if 
for $150 (with $10 to $20 for cover, case, and small ap- 
pliances), you get a piece with all the substantial qualities 
of hard, dose shooting, regularity in dispersion of shot, and 
au,rability of barrels and locls, which you would obtain in 
an English gun for $300 or $400, the gain is greatly 
yours. These qualities I and some friends of mine have 
obtained, within these last two or three years, from Mr. 
Mullin, at the mentioned price. The guns he has sent to 
Georgia and Alabama, so far as I can ascertain, after a 
good deal of inquiry, have in no instance ffiiled to prove 
themselves the very hardest and closest shooters. 

While on the subject of Mullin's work, I will state that 
his best barrels are laminated steel. Somehow or other, I 
had imbibed a strong prejudice against them, notwith- 
standing one of the very best guns I ever shot was one 
of them, made by Stevens, which I have parted with be- 
cause it was of laminated steel. It was a little difficult 
for Mr. Mullin to convert me from this prejudice, but he 
did finally succeed. In a letter to me, he says : '* I give 
you a description of the laminated steel barrels, which 
you seem so much to fear. They are made of thin layers 



CAPACITY OF RESISTANCE. 15 

of steel, twisted as a rope of three strands, and then 
twisted around a rod to form the barrel ; then welded and 
then put through the annealing process, which takes all, 
or nearly all, of the carlon out, and leaves the barrels all 
the closeness of steel, and all the toughness of fine iron. 
Suppose all the carbon is taken out of your razor, and it 
rendered iron once more, then what iron can compare with 
it in closeness and toughness?" Again, in another letter, 
he sends me a table of the comparative capacity of resistance 
of different barrels, and says : " I hope the scale opposite 
will satisfy your fears, and when you come to use the 
gun, I feel certain no man could prevail on you to go 
back to iron barrels ; the steel kill so clean and keep so 
clean, and no give-out in their shooting powers." Again 
he says : " They (the steel barrels) will not lead on ac- 
count of their closeness, nor Ireech-hiirn, but maintain 
their power of shooting," &c. 

The following is the table of comparative strength of 
the different materials used in gun building, furnished me 
a year or two since by Mr. Mullin : 



Laminated Steel ig equal ) g Q22 lbs 

to a pressure of . . ) ' 
Stubb Twist . . . . 4,818 " 

Charcoal Iron .... 4,526 " 

Three-penny Skelp Iron 3,841 " 

Damascus Iron .... 3,292 " 

Two-penny Skelp Iron . 2,810 " 

Assuming the correctness of this comparison, and I 
know nothing to throw any doubt upon it, the laminated 
steel ought to drive other descriptions of barrels out of 
the market entirely. The ''two-penny skelp" guns, I 
presume, are those which we see sold every day, in the 
stores, painted outside in rings like a raccoon's tail, and 
which are familiarly known as pot-metal. How any man 
of sense should risk his life forty times a day with such a 



PRESSURE OF 


SURFLrS 


THE CHARGE. 


STRENGTH. 


1,700 lbs. 


4,322 lbs. 




3,118 " 




2.826 " 




2,141 " 




1,592 '♦ 




1,140 " 



16 DOG AND GU.\. 

weapon, I cannot comprehend ; but I presume a great 
many who have brains do not so jeopard them. 

In determining' as to the size of a gun, reference is of course 
to be had to the character of the shooting it is intended for 
Practically, in the South, almost every man limits himself 
to a single gun "of all work." He wants one convenient 
and tolerably effective in a deer, turkey, or duck hunt, 
and not too heavy for a day's fagging after quail or snipe. 
All writers and persons of any experience, agree that the di- 
mensions of a gun for these various purposes, are as 
follows : — 

Length of barrels, . . 32 inches. 

Gauge, . . . . No. 14. 

Weight, . . . 6^ to 7^ lbs. 

I believe that, from some cause, or other, more good 
guns are made of these measurements than of any other. 
It may be that the makers have so many to supply, that 
practice and experience in the particular size have gra- 
dually taught the exact relations of all the parts. 

For the larger game mentioned above, it is better to 
have 32 to 34 inches, 10, 11, or 12 gauge, and 8 to 9 lbs. 
weight. But most men overweight themselves. A gun 
should be fully within the strength of tlie person who is to 
handle it. A strong man, ceteris paribus, shoots always 
better than a feeble one ; the weak should shoot as light 
guns as are effective. To be sure, I do not practice what I 
preach-shooting an eight and a half pound gun, when six 
pounds would better suit my muscles — but then all small 
men are ambitious ! 

The custom of using long, small-gauged guns — for in- 
stance (and nothing is more common), barrels 34 to 36 
inches, and 15 to 18 guage — is ridiculous. No man but a 
pot-hunter, ignorant and irreclaimable, would do so. Not 



POWDER. 17 

but that many of these guns do shoot excellently, but they 
do so not on account of their great length. In my opinion, 
a 14 gauge gun of 32 inches will carry as far as the same 
gauge with a half dozen inches added. If you increase 
the calibre, length may properly be added ; but for any 
shoulder gun, I have no doubt 34 inches is quite enough, 
though possibly two inches more may benefit. 

In purchasing guns in New York, or importing them to 
that city, I would recommend any friend of mine to en- 
gage the services of no one, out of the trade, but Wm. T. 
Porter, Esq., of the Spirit of the Times. If he has one 
made there, let him by all means go to MuUin, whom I re- 
commend simply and solely, because I have dealt with 
him, paid him his best prices and got just what I wanted 
on all occasions. 

Having got a gun, we naturally proceed to charge it. 
The chief difficulty is to obtain clean, strong powder. I 
know of but oi^ powder answering this description* — 
that of Curtis & Harvey, English manufacturers. Their 
diamond grain is all that powder can be, or ought to be ; 
their large grain, ducking powder, does not answer so well 
for our river and pond duck shooting. My attention was 
first attracted to the Diamond Grain by Forester's work, 
and I have never since willingly used any other. It is 
rather stronger than Du Font's, and a pound will hardly 
foul a gun so much as a half dozen loads of the latter, which, 
like all American powder, is ineffably filthy. Curtis & 
Harvey's powder can generally be obtained of Messrs. W. 
B. & A. R. Bell, Dry Goods Dealers, Montgomery, and of 
Aubrey & Co., Froduce Merchants, Mobile. These firms 

••' Since the above was written, I have become satisfied that the 
" Electric Powder," of the ILnard Company, is almost as clean as tho 
" Diamond Grain." It Uthelest Aeri^ ii Powder. Parker, Morris & 
Co., of Mobile, are the Agents for Alabama. 



18 DOG AND GUN. 

import it, principally as an accommodation to their sport- 
ing friends, and sell it at -Si 25 — low enough, all things 
considered. 

For caps, Starkey has the best reputation, but his are 
excessively dear. JEley's double water proof, at $3 a 
thousand, are good enough for anybody. Richards' are 
said to be good. I know no others that are. 

As for cartridges, Eley's are the only ones. They are 
excellent for a careful, good shot, and increase the effective 
range of a gun from 20 to 40 yards. But careless or in- 
expert hands will find no advantage in them ; the reason is 
at moderate distances they require an exactitude of aim 
very nearly the same as in rifle shooting. I shall say 
more of them hereafter. 



CHAPTER III. 

ON THE CriAKQINQ OF A OUN. 

It may seem almost a waste of time, ink and paper, to 
discourse at any considerable length, of so simple a mat- 
ter as the charging rf a gun. And jet, I feel certain, that 
ignorance on this subject is more general than on almost 
any other branch of sporting. The number of men who 
load properly, is exceedingly small in proportion to the 
number who shoot. There are errors very common, both 
as to the proportions of powder and shot, and as to the 
comparative effect of light and heavy charges. 

Pot-hunters invariably load by far too heavily. Ob- 
serve boys who hunt squirrels and birds about the outskirts 
of the town, and you will soon see that any one of them 
will consume, in an afternoon, about as much ammunition 
as would serve a sportsman for a whole day's continuous 
shooting.. The vulgar idea is, that a shot-gun is effective 
in proportion to the amount of powder and lead crammed 
down it, and many do therefore procure very large guns 
because they will bear larger crammings — and that with- 
out much reference to the particular service in which the 
piece is to be employed. All popular fallacies have 
some slight foundation in fact ; but that reasoning which 
says, that if one and a quarter drachms powder and one 
ounce shot will, with a particular gun, kill quail at forty 
yards, double the quantity of each will kill the same bird 
at eighty yards, is utterly defective. 

There is hardly a better test of sportsmanship than a 
man's mode of loading his gun. It is true that one may 

(19) 



20 DOG AND GUN. 

load well and slioot badly, but practically it will be found 
to be very rarely the case. The doing of this thing well 
implies the powers of observation which go far towards 
making a passably good shot. Possibly a deficiency of a 
physical nature, such as want of muscle or unsteadiness 
of nerve, may unfortunately belong to the individual who 
charges his gun in the very best manner ; but then he 
knows how the shooting ought to be done. 

As I have said already, most guns are overloaded. 
There is usually about as great a quantity of. powder 
burned in shooting squirrels, at twenty to forty yards, 
as it would be proper to expend in shooting deer, or 
even bear, at long ranges. It is really a wonder that 
more of the pot-metal barrels do not burst under the treat- 
ment they receive, in this respect. Their owners pack 
them with a liberality which can only be the result of 
absolute ignorance of the powers of the agencies they 
invoke. A half-handful of powder and a handful of 
shot is about the common charge, without any considera- 
tion as to distance, size of shot, kind of game, or capacity 
of the gun. 

The little experience I have had, leads me to the be- 
lief, that even with good sportsmen, the error is almost 
invariably overcharging. In shooting quail, particularly, 
very small loads are sufficient. One of the most success- 
ful of my friends shoots a little less than a drachm of powder 
to about three-quarter ounce of number-seven shot. AVith 
this charge he is quite as certain at long shots, as any 
one of my acquaintance. I think, however, that he is a 
little under the mark as to quantity of powder, and uses 
shot a number too large. For quail shooting, the true pro- 
portions, in my opinion, are : 

Powder (" Diamond Grain,") one and a half drachm. 

Shot, number eight, one ounce. 
This I would give only as an approximation to the true 



•^^'EIGHT OF CHARGE. 21 

proportions fortbe thirty-tAvo inch fourteen-gauge gun; be- 
cause the peculiar shooting of the j)^i'ticular gun may 
make some slight change necessary. Forinstance, a very 
strong shooter will not need more than a drachm to make the 
ounce of shot thoroughly effective at any ordinary range. 
Again, though number eight, " day in and day out," is — 
as Forester stoutly maintains — the, shot for quail, yet I 
have known guns which killed them cleverly with sevens 
which did not do so with eights. 

The reason for which eights are prefeiTed is that the 
number of pellets to the ounce is much larger than of 
sevens. The difference between these two numbers is 
greater than between any other two numbers of shot 
Forester estimates that a number-eight shot bears the samo 
relation, in size, to a quail, that a gi-ape shot does to a 
man of ordinary frame. Allowing, then, largely for supe- 
rior tenacity of life, on the part of the bird, the smaller 
shot is amply large for his execution, if driven through 
him, as it always will be, if the gun is of the right kind 
and properly charged. 

For snipe shooting, I suppose that there need be no va- 
riation from the above, except as to the size of shot. 
Most persons use ninesy I believe, in this kind of shooting. 
My experience does not entitle me to an opinion, but if I 
ever have opportunity to try the sport, I shall experiment 
w^ith a number smaller — number ten. 

Perhaps the widest variances, in so far as shot are con- 
cerned, occur among those who shoot ducks. Those who 
depend mainly on killing them on the water, from behind 
a stump or log, invariably use large shot — from threes up 
to B. Those who do not go a-pot hunting use fours and 
fives, and some as low as sixes. The last mentioned is, 
however, quite small enough for the Mallard, which is re- 
markably strong both of bone and feather. They will 
not only carry off, at times, a good many pellets, but their 



22 DOG AND GUN. 

strong plumage is excellently defensive against shot. 
Coming breast on in a right line, it is commonly believed 
that the thick cushion of feathers on the body will cause 
small shot to deflect. But I am inclined to think that a 
difference of one or even two numbers would not change 
the effect, in this respect. 

Forester recommends number four for the Mallard, and I 
would sooner stand on his than any other single experi- 
ence. For such guns as are most commonly used in the 
sport, the correct charge would be about 

One and three-quarter drachms powder. 

One and a quarter ounce shot. 

These are less than the quantities spoken of in the 
Sporting Books, in connection with the" subject of Duck 
Shooting ; but it must be borne in mind that I always 
speak, in these papers, with reference to guns of a maxi- 
mum weight of nine pounds. 

For Turkey Shooting, the most successful hunters I 
know, recommend B or BB shot. The old-fashioned idea 
of large buckshot is going out of vogue. The turkey 
has immense vitality, and it really makes little difference 
with what size of shot you blow a hole through his body, if 
you leave his back, wings and legs unbroken : he will be 
very apt to take himself off, out of your reach, to die. 
JFor riddling' the. head and neck (which can be done at forty 
to fifty yards with any good gun), the chances are very 
greatly multiplied by the use of B or BB shot ; and either 
of these !^izes will very effectually break a wing or dis- 
able the back. As a general thing, in all sorts of shoot- 
ing, the most common mistake is to use too large pellets j 
but the disadvantages of doing so are hardly as manifest 
in any other description of hunting, as in turkey shooting. 

1 have no doubt but that Eley's Wire Cartridge an- 
swers a better purpose for killing the turkey, than for any 
other game. The sport generally gives ample time for 



WEIGHT OF CHARGE. 23 

careful sliootiiig, and the great force of the cartridge and 
its regular dispersion of shot, enable the hunter to count 
with great certainty on perforating the neck or head, at 
fifty or even sixty yards. But in shooting cartridges, 
there is a rule to be remembered which does not hold, at 
all in the shooting of loose shot. With the latter, the 
less the powder used, the closer your shot go. With the 
cartridge, the greater the charge of powder, the greater 
the velocity of the cartridge, and, consequently, the less the 
time allowed, in a given distance, for the expulsion of the 
shot from the wire cage, and the consequent scattering. 
You must therefore increase your powder (up to a certain 
limit, of course), to increase the velocity of the cage and 
its contents. If I were going to shoot turkeys, I would 
use two drachms of moderately coarse-grained powder to 
an ounce and a half of B shot. Or two and a half 
drachms powder to a BB cartridge. 

This suggests to my mind the chief objection I have 
to Eley's cartridge. The BB cartridge, gauge 11, weighs 
two ouiices ; i. e. one and a half ounce shot, and half 
ounce bone dust (in alternate layers with the shot), wire 
cage, cork, and paper. These two ounces are in a very 
dense, compact form ; it is almost equivalent to shooting 
the same quantity of bar lead. The weight requires at 
least two and a half drachms strong powder to keep it 
well in line for fifty-five or sixty yards. If it Avas made 
to weigh half an ounce less, its range would, I think, be 
considerably increased by the use of the same amount of 
powder. Very few men like to shoot more than two and 
a half drachms, and some will not go that far. A reduc- 
tion of Aveight, in those made for the American market, 
would greatly increase the sale of the article. 

There is one rule to be observed in loading, for long 
shots, with loose shot — to increase the powder and dimin- 



24 DOG A\D GU.\. 

isli the shot. The reason for this is obvious : you need 
increase of power to penetrate, which you cannot have, 
if shot is proportionally increased with the poAvder. This 
rule is very often violated. Persons are apt to give too 
little attention to the relations of powder and shot in the 
charge. 

I think that one of the first things a man should do, 
after (if not before) purchasing a new gun, should be to 
go out and try it, with all the numbers of shot from eight 
up to one, to ascertain what numbers it disperses most 
evenly. Supposing your gun to shoot strcng, the next 
thing is this evenness of dispersion ; and some guns do 
best with certain numbers, and some with certain others. 
Having ascertained which your gun affects, use the7}i of 
course. My own opinion is that barrels finely finished 
inside show their superiority most strikingly in throwing 
the small sizes. 

No man who knows anything about shooting, will 
ever use any other plain wad, than Baldwin's patent. 
Mr. Mullin informs me, that if they are saturated with 
melted sheep's fat, they clean the barrel- admirably. I 
firmly believe this, and I especially 'believe also in the 
free use of oil on the inside and outside of a gun. This 
is considered heterodox by many, but I adhere to what I 
find to be of practical utility, in my own experience. 
Another excellent cleaner is Eley's Patent Concave Felt 
Wad. It will also improve the shooting of any gun. 
Shot disperse more evenly before it than before any thing 
else. In buying them, it is best to select a number larger 
than your bore, for then the concavity is less likely to be 
affected by ramming. The only objection to them is 
their high price : they retail here in Montgomery at $1 50 
a bag. Nevertheless it is cheapest to use them at all 
such game as turkeys, ducks, &c. 



DINKS ON DOGS. 



25 



I have gained some practical ideas by looking occa- 
sionally at the exhibit of the number of pellets to the 
ounce, of each variety of shot. 

The following tables are taken from Hawker :• — 



MOULD SHOT 

LG 
MG 

SO 

>SSG 

SSSG 

PATKNT DROP SHOT. 

AA 

A 

BB 

B 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 



NO. OF PELLETS TO loZ. 

[hardly] 9 
11 
15* 
17 



40 
50 

58 

75 

82 

112 

135 

177 

218 

280 

341 

600 

984 

1725 



Nothing I conld add to this chapter would be half so use- 
ful as the following extract from " Dinks on Dogs," a most 
admirable little work ; 

"And now methinks I may safely add a few words on 
guns. This, of course, especially to the rising generation. 
I need not tell you not to put the shot all in one barrel and 
the powder in the other, though I have frequently seen it 
done, yea, and done it myself, when in a mooning fit ; but 
I will say, never carry your gun at full cock, or with the 
hammers down, tlian which last there cannot be anything 
more dangerous. The slightest pull upon the cock is 



* Best and most perfect of all mould shot. 
2 



26 DOe A\D GL'\, 

sufficient to cause it to fall so smartly on the cone or nipple 
as to explode the cap. Positively, I would not shoot a 
day, no, nor an hour, with a man who so carried his gun. 
At half-cock there is no danger. By pulling ever so hard 
at the trigger, you cannot get it off; and if you 
raise the cock ever so little, it falls back to half-cock, 
or, at the worst, catches at full cock. Never over- 
charge your gun. Two to two and a half drachms of 
powder,* and one ounce to one and a quarter of shot, is 
about the load. For summer shooting still less. Never 
take out a dirty gun, not even if only once fired out of, 
even if you have to clean it yourself. After cleaning with 
soap, rubbed on the tow in warm, or better, cold water, 
without the soap, if not over dirty, remove the tow, put on 
clean, and pump out remaining dirt in clean warm water, 
rinsing out the third time in other clean warm water. In- 
vert the barrels, muzzle downwards, while you refix your 
dry tow on the rod. Work them out successively with 
several changes of tow, till they burn again. Drop a few 
drops of animal oil — refined by putting shot into the bottle ; 
neat's foot oil is best for tliis — on to the tow, and rub out 
the inside of barrels with it well. Wipe the outside with 
oil rag, cleaning around the nipples with a hard brush and 
a stick ; ditto hammers and the steel furniture. Use 
boiled oil to rub off the stock, but it must be well rubbed 
in. Before using next day, rub over every part with a 
clean dry rag. Nothing is more disgusting than an oily 
gun, and yet nothing is more requisite than to keep it so 
when out of use. In receipts you will find a composition 
to prevent water penetrating to the locks, which ought to 
be as seldom removed as possible. I shall not tell you 
how to do this, for if you do know the how, where is 

~" I have been long satisfied that this is overcharging, and some 
of my most successful friends agree with me. 



COST OF A eOOD GUN. 27 

the necessity, and if you don't, in all probability you would 
break a scear or mainspring in tlie attempt, as I did, wlien 
first I essayed, and after that had to get the gamekeeper to 
put it together. So your best plan, in this latter case, is to 
watch the method for a time or two, when you will know 
as much of tlie matter as I do. If you want a gun of first 
rate workmanship, you will have to pay a swinging price. 
Fifty pounds for a tip-top London gun ; thirty-five pounds 
for a Westley Richards. . One London gun will outAvear 
two of Westley's. Wliy, I cannot say, but all his barrels 
are soft. Moore & Gray sent some eighty dollar guns to this 
country last year, the best and cheapest common guns I 
have seen. For finish, I would as soon have them as Westley 
Richards' guns. There is not much choice between any 
London maker, and there are several Birmingham makers 
fully equal, if not superior to, Richards. Always keep 
your powder dry, and in a dry place. Never shoot with 
anything but English powder, Curtis & Harvey's diamond 
grain, Hall's glass or rifle, both same quality, and Pigou & 
Wilks' best powder. There is very little choice between 
them. They are strong and clean shooting powders. 
Don't use too large, nor yet too small shot. Six, seven, and 
eight, are your mark for ordinary work ; for duck, from 
common gun, number four. Never leave your dog whip at 
home : you always want it most on those occasions. A 
gun thirty one inch barrel, fourteen gauge, and eight 
pounds weight, is as useful an article as you can have. 
Never poke at a bird, that is, try to see him along tlie 
. barrels. If you do, you never can be a good or a quick sliot 
Fix your eye or eyes on the bird, lift up your gun and fire 
the moment it touches your shoulder. Practice this a 
little, and believe me you will give the pokers the go-by 
in a short time. It is the only way to be a sharp shot 
And now I will have done, trusting I have not wasted 
your time in reading so far to no purpose." 



CHAPTER lY. 
THE SETTER AND POINTER. 

The dogs in universal use, for tlie hunting of game 
birds, are the Setter and Pointer. The Cocking Spaniel 
or Springer (which Forester considers to be the original 
stock of the Setter), is unknown in the Southern States, 
and can only be procured with great difficulty at the 
North. As he will probably not be mentioned again in 
these pages, it may be as well to remark that he is a very 
small dog, with some of the characteristic marks of the 
setter, but having a more curly coat and longer ears. He 
does not set his game, but indicates a near approach to it, 
by a slight whining. From what I gather about him in 
the books, I incline to the opinion, that he would be more 
useful here than in the Northern States. Every sports- 
man knows how frequently vre are balked, by quail be- 
taking themselves to thick black-jack and other coverts. 
For such ground the Cocker is said to be admirably adapt- 
ed. Birds lie better before him than before the setter or 
the pointer. I therefore hope that our sportsmen will be- 
gin to import them. 

The authorities are divided on the question of prefer- 
ence between the setter and the pointer. Each has its 
good qualities ; each its defects. Bat I hare not the 
slightest doubt, that Jor this climate, the pointer is the 
proper dog. His tender skin and liability to suffer with 
cold, are more than counterbalanced by his capacity to 
endure thirst and heat. In Alabama, at a moderate estimate, 
one-third of the shooting season, from first October to first 

(28) 



PREFERENCE FOR THE POINTER. 29 

March, is made up of days quite too warm for the comfort 
of the setter. It is often too oppressive to the sportsman 
himself. The pointer can and does endure it, hut the set- 
ter takes " fits" occasionally, and frequently compels his 
•owner to cease his amusement, in pity for the sufferings of 
his dog. 

There is another reason why the pointer is hetter 
adapted to the South. We have no professional dog-break- 
ers here, and our sportsmen are lamentably loose in their 
ideas and practice of training.. The setter can be subdued 
into perfect obedience and the most admirable perform- 
ance ; but with imperfect training and careless manage- 
ment he becomes utterly worthless, while the pointer is 
only comparatively so. This is the general rule ; a few 
setters are as docile, steady and reliable, after having been 
once well broken, as any pointer. 

I will add another objection to the use of the setter 
here. In a majority of instances, our shooting grounds 
are infested with that detestable weed which produces 
what is vulgarly known as the '"* cuckle-burr." It adheres 
in large quantities to the long and silky coat of the set- 
ter, gets between his legs and chafes off the skin, and 
makes him both ugly and miserable. It is not long since 
I saw a specimen of its effects, upon a very fine-looking 
dog, which had almost lost the power of locomotion by 
its terrible punishing. The short, satin coat of the pointer 
offers no hold to the vile thing ; and a moment's reflec- 
tion vrill convince the sportsman that this immunity is a 
vast advantage. 

I shall conclude this chapter with a letter from Dr. E. 
B. J., of Macon county, a friend whose opinion on the 
subject of dogs or their training, I would rather have 
than any amateur's I know of. " By his works" he may 
be " known ;" his dogs are the best broken in the State. 

In chapter six I shall give a letter from Mr. G. W. Cootei, 



30 DOQ AND GUN. 

of New York, a professional trainer of extensive expe- 
rience, who lias kindly furnished me with a description of 
his mode, which will be found highly interesting to the 
tyro. The subjoined shows Dr. J. 's : 

** Friend H : Having promised to give you some few* 
hints relative to the training of setters and pointers, I 
proceed to do so with due modesty, feeling my total in- 
capacity, as T have had but little experience ; yet, still to 
the mere novice, I may give some advice that may en- 
able him, with his own judgment, to train his dogs to his 
own advantage. There are several modes of training — 
different ways for accomplishing the same end. I simply 
propose to suggest the plan that seems most simple to 
myself, which I have collected from books, my own ohser- 
ration, and the suggestions of others. Some authors will 
recommend you to discard the lash altogether ; others to 
use it most freely. You may make a good dog with the 
lash ; by its indiscriminate use spoil the best. My idea is, 
that it is next to impossible to train a dog properly with- 
out it ; yet it requires the nicest judgment when, and to 
what extent, to use it. A dog should never be lashed 
until he is made fully to understand the whi/ — or, it may 
be, in inculcating a lesson that you cannot otherwise en- 
force. 

" Before giving our few lessons in training, it may not 
be amiss to give a few hints as to the selection of a good 
pup from the litter. I will mention what I consider the 
ne plus ultra of a good* pup : — well formed limbs, wide 
between the eyes— eyes full but not too prominent^ 
fi ontal sinuses well developed ; the head broad and full ; 
the poll large ; muzzle rather long and only slightly 
tapering ; ears rather long, very thin, and angular ; tail 
long, small and tapering, presenting a very rattish appear- 
ance I consider this one of the best marks of good 



SPORTING TERMS, 31 

blood in the English Pointer. The hair short, thin, and 
very fine and glossy — this mark I regard above all the 
rest, as I think a fine silken coat indicates a nervous, 
active temperament — the sense of smell will be apt to be 
acute, and I think it almost impossible for him to be 
sluggish. In selecting a pup, one should suit his fancy as 
to color, as there are good dogs of all colors, but the 
lighter for the field the better, for reasons obvious. 

" Now for sporting terms. I notice that H., in his 
* Chapters on Shooting,' discards from his nomenclature 
one term I consider of much importance, i. q. hie on! 
This is one of the first I teach my young dog. I do not 
use it to make him flush, but there are many instances 
where it is useful in the field. Our young sportsmen (as 
I only write for very young '\ins, being one of 'em my- 
self), will be better able to see its use after reading my 
few lessons. I think it all important that sportsmen 
should use as few terms as possible ; yet I think that an- 
other phrase might be introduced into your nomenclature 
with benefit — it is close on. It is a slang term, not at all 
technical, but I use it with great convenience. I per- 
ceive that H. is down upon all slang terms, and the word 
heed ! in particular, and I admit with some justice. Wish- 
ing to establish an uniform sporting nomenclature, I can 
but admit, I like the word on account of the force and 
emphasis with which it may be used. But concurring in 
the desire for an uniform sporting nomenclature, like him- 
self, I will discard it, and henceforth use the more techni- 
cal phrase, toho ! or ho ! 

" Now for our pupil. We should take him in charge 
quite early — as early as the second month — I like to ac- 
custom him to obedience from his earliest fwpjpyhood, to 
engraft upi>n his very nature obedience — and that you can- 
not do, but by beginning very early. I have heard of 



32 DOG AND GUN. 

dogs running wild until a year old, and then brought into 
training, but I have never seen one properly trained at 
that age. Such an one might satisfy the novice and pot- 
hunter, that know not what a trained dog is, but the true 
sportsman would kick sueh from his kennel. Our pupil's 
first lesson should be toJio ! steady ! Me on ! and if you 
admit my slang phrase, close on — (pronounced cloze on). 
These words you can very soon with patience learn him 
by means of a plate of beef, or such other food as he very 
much fancies. You should place a small piece of beef in 
a plate before him. Of course he evinces very great 
anxiety to 'pitch in.' You repress his ardor, by giving 
him a slight tap upon the head, crying toho ! Of course 
he does not understand the meaning of the word, but 
every time he starts, check him with a tap, crying toho ! 
with emphasis. After repeated trials, he soon associates 
the word with tlie slap, and stops of his own accord. 
AiiQv pointing for a few seconds, cry 7iie on ! at the same 
time gently forcing him towards the plate. Hie on ! he 
learns amazingly soon. A few such lessons and the 
words are learned, to be retained. The word steady is 
now easily learned, by making him approach the plate 
slowly, crying steady ! steady ! at sliort intervals. When 
near the plate, cry tolio ! never permitting him to eat 
until you give the word Me en ! 

" The word dose, on should be used when you wish him 
to break his point, but not * 'pitch in ' to the plate ; before 
he arrives at the plate cry toho! and then hie, on! when 
he has pointed, by the word close on, he must understand 
that he is to move cautiously, by the oft-repeated com- 
mand of steady ! Steady ! — close on, should not be used 
with the same emphasis as hie on and toho ! With care, 
these words may be soon learned to the pup — recollecting 
never to use severity at this age, and that no other hand 



TRAINING. 33 

than your own should furnish him with food, and always 
hear in mind that you are not to begin a new lesson until 
the old one is thoroughly understood. 

" Your next lesson should be doivn charge ! or either of 
the two words separately — as down^ or charge ! This he 
is made to understand by gently forcing him down, keep- 
ing his hind legs well up under him, extending his fore 
legs, and forcing his head gently between them, crying 
charge! charge! tapping him every time he moves. 
Practice him frequently in this position (using only suffi- 
cient severity to make him obedient), until he is obedient. 
Now to make your dog drop at the command, you should 
cry charge ! charge ! with your hand upraised ; forcing 
him rather roughly into the required position, and by fre- 
quent practice, you will soon have him drop to the word. 
When you wish him to rise, cry hie uf !. at the same time 
gently raising him until he understands ; this he will now. 
readily do, as he already associates the word hie with 
action. AVhen your dog behaves well, never faih to eur 
courage him with caresses ; when badly, let him be made 
to know and feel it. When giving this lesson, you should 
have your pupil within doors or an enclosure, so that he 
cannot play the truant. In this instance it may be well 
to pursue ' Dinks' plan — use a cord, fasten him to a 
peg ; make him charge ; walk off from him ; if he 
attempts truancy, the cord retains him ; return, lash hira 
gently, make him charge again ; walk off some distance, 
still crying charge ! charge ! always with hand upraised. 
You should practice him until he obeys the summons at 
any distance. You may now practice your dog every 
time you feed him, thus : place a portion of his food a 
few paces from him, make him charge ! cicse on ! steady ! 
Heady ! toho ! charge ! close on ! steady ! steady ! to- 
ho ! (or ho ! ) hie on ! 

"Now to teach yoiur dog to retrieve. First begin with 

2^ 



34 DOG AND GUN. 

Bomethlng soft — an old glove will best answer your pur- 
pose — first make liim toy and play with it, then cast it a 
short distance from you — he will naturally chase it and 
return with it to you — encourage him Avith caresses. 
You should practice this often, always using the term, 
hie, fetch ! when you send him after it, and fetch ! or 
come in ! when you wish him to return. To teach your 
dog the word come in, you should use it upon all occasions 
when a short distance from you ; you may use it when 
you call him to feed him, &c. To teach him the word, 
you may let him accompany you in a walk, having a 
slight cord attached to him. When he plays too far 
ahead, check him, cry come in ! if he pays little attention 
to the summons, draw him in rather roughly by the cord. 
When you wish to teach him the Avord hack ! or to heel 
(I prefer the word hack), you should check him by the 
word hack ! hack ! Make him follow behind you, and 
when he attempts to go ahead give him a tap with the 
whip (an article the sportsman should never be without). 
The words are very easily learned. Your pupil should 
be early accustomed to the call of an ivory whistle, when 
too far to hear the call come in ! 

" To return to retrieving. To teach a dog to retrieve, 
frequently requires a great deal of patience and perse- 
verance ; but rest assured when once accomplished, you 
will be amply repaid for your trouble. You will some- 
times hear your friend say, * my dog will not retrieve ; 
he has no disposition to do so. I cannot make him,' &c. 
It is not so ! I believe any pointer or setter can be made 
to retrieve Avell. After all toying and coaxing fails, then 
you must try the virtue of the lash, remembering always 
to use it with moderation, and be very careful that you 
do not cow your puppy. Tins is the m.ode I Avould re- 
commend. Within your room or yard where you will be 
undisturbed — recoUectir g that the presence of company, 



HOUSE TRAINING. 35 

man or dog, should be prohibited. First begin by placing 
your glove within mouth, make him retain it ; if he re- 
jects it, replace it, gently correcting him, crying fetch ! 
fetch ! After he understands the meaning of the word 
fetch, you may let him accompany you in a walk, in some 
quiet place. Whenever he drops the glove, you must 
gently and encouragingly replace it, crying, fetch ! fetch I 
If he rejects it, then the lash must be used, though spar- 
ingly. If you study the disposition of your dog and 
manage properly, he will soon perfectly understand you, 
and gaily and happily gambol along side of you, never 
daring to drop his charge and if he should, he will only 
need the words, hie, fetch ! fetch ! fetch ! to make him 
bound back with eagerness after the lost glove. You 
may now take the glove, cast it from you, and tell him to 
hie, fetch ! he will immediately return with the glove. 
You may now let him see you drop the glove, walk off 
thirty or forty yards, waive your hand in the direction of 
the glove, and cry hie, fetch ! he Avill of course regain 
the glove. After practising him at this often, you may 
drop the glove unobserved by him. He will soon follow 
your track for a considerable distance for a lost article, by 
receiving the command, hie, fetch ! You may now give 
the glove to another person to hide, first permitting the 
dog to see it in his possession, and he will be almost cer- 
tain to find it, if it is at all accessible. In your first 
lessons be careful that you place the glove where your 
dog will be certain to find it — not too far off. There is 
another term or trick I teach my dog, that is not abso- 
lutely necessary, but it is most easily learned, and I find 
it quite convenient in the field, and besides it somewhat 
adds to his accomplishments. It is hie over — a command 
to leap — often necessary to make your dog * cross fence.' 
To teach him, you first cry toho ! to make your dog 
stand ; you then hold tolerably near him a piece of beef 



36 DOG Ai\D GUN. 

then use a stick as a barrier between him and it, making it 
necessary for him, to leap for it, upon receiving the com- 
mand hie over ! If he disregards the Avord hie over, use 
hie on ! and afterwards hie over, until he understands, 
which he soon does by frequent practice. Very soon he 
can be made to over leap a chair or cane without the in- 
citement of a dainty morsel. A few words of advice, and 
your dog is ready for the field. After your dog begins to 
retrieve, make him play with the ball — practising all the 
lessons Avith it that he learned with his heef. (I usually 
begin my first lessons with the aid of beef on account of 
the dog's great love for it, and because he is much more 
apt to learn his lessen:^ for such a prize; but I think it 
very improper that he should be fed regularly with it, as 
it injures his scent). The ball that I have used and 
prefer, is the head of the femur of the ox, nicely covered 
with cloth ; the reason why, he is less likely to month the 
birds after using such. He gets into the habit of taking 
up his ball easily, as otherwise it would hurt his teeth, it 
being of bone. Having made an innovation by the intro- 
duction of a slang phrase — i. e., close on — I must give my 
reasons for so doing. I have frequently been out sport- 
ing with dogs not trained to its use, and I have frequently 
experienced the greatest inconvenience. If the dog 
should have a good nose, and the breeze a little stiff, he 
will not unfrequently point a bevy, or even a single bird, 
thirty or forty, and even fifty yards. When such is the 
case, what is the usual procedure ? Why, you generally 
see the sportsman begin to kick his dog on, step by step, 
thirty or forty yards — a sight not altogether sportsman- 
like or gentlemanly, I ween. With a dog taught the 
w^ord close on, the difficulty is at once overcome. You can 
always tell when your dog is very near a bird, so there is 
no need of flushing, by the too frequent command of 
close on ! 



HOUSE TRAINING. 37 

" The young sportsman must recollect that he cannot 
train his dog in a day or a month, but that he must prac- 
tice him for many montes ; and even so long as the dog 
should live, he should never be suffered to forget his 
lessons. 

" The above is all that I consider necessary for house 
training. If it should he desirable, I may give a few 
items to the young sportsman upon his first taking his 
dog to the field." 



CHAPTER Y. 

b'lELD TRAININQ. 

" Friend H : Having promised to give you my mode of 
^ Field Training,^ I propose to give you what I have 
found to answer best my purpose. Taking it for granted 
that your puppy Dash has had proper house training, you 
should select such grounds as will enable you to keep 
your pupil always in sight. He should be taken out alone 
at first, unless you find that he is deficient in action. 
When such is the case, you will do well to take him out 
with an old, well-trained dog, of fine action ; and it 
will be well to take them to a field where you will not 
find game. Your object, of course, will be to get your 
pupil in the way of hunting briskly at a full gallop. He 
will soon get in the habit of going as you wish. Nothing 
looks so bad to the eye of a sportsman as a pacing or 
trotting dog in the field. Most thorough bred dogs 
will carry themselves handsomely. Taking it for granted 
that your dog now possesses fine action, you should take 
him to a field where you will probably find game. In 
beating the field, always go against the wind ; do not let 
Dash play more than fifty or eighty yards from you, and 
be careful at first to quarter your ground, to teach your 
dog to do so — call his attention by a single blast of your 
whistle — waft your hand to the right diagonally across the 
field ; when he has gone some eighty yards in the required 
direction, you will call his attention by another blast — 
wafting your hand to the left, going yourself in the same 
direction. By pursuing this course for a short time, you 

(38) 



FIELD TRAINING. 39 

will soon be enabled to cast him off to the right or left 
without trouble. Be careful to call his attention bj a sin- 
gle blast on the call — to waft your hand in the required 
direction — pursue the same course yourself for a short 
time, audit will not be long before you will be pleased 
with the result. When you wish him to come in., when 
at an inconvenient distance to speak to him, repeat the 
blast upon the call three or four times. Dash, in his 
early days of puppyhood, will be sure to point sparrows 
and everythhig else having feathers that will nestle under 
the grass. For this you must not chide him too roughly, 
but simply call him off, and pay no attention to the bird ; 
by no means shoot anything except game before him. By 
pursuing this course, Dash will soon heed nothing save 
game ; but if he shows much perverseness, as some will 
at times, the lash must be used. You must expect fre- 
quently to have your patience sorely tried with your pu- 
pil. You must always keep him in sight, and when he 
does strike his first bevy he will be sure to point, if he is 
of the right stock, which I take for granted he is, as no 
true sportsman will take the trouble of training any other. 

*' After giving Dash house training and he should refuse 
to point his first bird, I would be disposed to turn him 
over to the halter. I have a dog Avhich pointed his first 
quail when three months old, without ever having seen or 
previously scented one ; at four or five months of age, he 
was as stauncli as I could wish — I could control him on 
the point, making him charge, close-on, &c. He had 
thorough house training. 

" When you observe Dash more excited than usual, you 
may reasonably expect a bevy near. They will not proba- 
bly be far off, as he has not become accustomed to the 
familiar and welcome scent that will enable him to wind 
them at a distance. Now comes the trying hour for mas- 
ter and pupil. The former should be perfectly cool, and 



40 DOG AND GUN. 

should consider the killing of game a secondary affair — 
let him give his attention to Dash. The dog seems too 
eager for the scent — you cry steady ! steady ! — if he is 
apparently near the game, and you are afraid he will flush, 
you cry tolio ! You approach and find the quail do not 
rise — you tell him to close-on, which he does hy moving 
rather rapidly — you check him by crying steady ! steady ! 
he points, toho ! You now approach and flush the bevy; 
be sure you briug down one bird, and it will be well that 
you only fire one barrel, that you may have more time to 
look after Dash, who of course scampers after the whirring 
bevy. You immediately cry toho ! come in ! — on, on he 
goes ; in his Avild excitement he disregards your will en- 
tirely. You now use your whistle. By this time the 
birds are out of sight (but you, of course, have marked 
them), and he is running belter skelter. You must soon 
get hold of his collar, drag him rather roughly back to 
where he pointed — lashing him slightly — and make him 
charge ! and keep his position until you reload ; after 
which you will take him to where your bird has fallen — 
indicate the place with your hand, Q,Yjm^ hie fitch ! fetch ! 
fetch ! From his previous lessons he will know that you 
wish him to look for something, and his nose will soon 
tell him what it is. Do not let him mouth or toy with it, 
or he will soon get in the habit of roughly mouthing your 
game, than which I scarcely know a worse habit. 

'* You may now rest for a short time,that the bevy may 
get over their fright ; after which they wdll be more easily 
found, for if they have been very much frightened, they 
will not give out sufiicient odor to enable your pupil to 
point w^ell, and he may consequently flush them, thereby 
doing great harm. You cannot do better than to spend 
your time in repeating your house training with the dead 
quail : casting it from you, telling him to close-on ! steady ! 
charge ! hie-on ! fetch! Cast it some distance unobserved 



FIELD TRAINING. 41 

— waft your hand in the proper direction, and tell him hie 
fetch ! fetch ! fetch ! After a short time has elapsed, 
you may take Dash to where you have marked the birds. 
When near the birds, keep Dash near you, that he may 
be the more easily controlled. If he seem too eager, he 
only needs the command of steady ! to control him. Let 
the command bein rather an undertone — never get into the 
snobbish habit of bawling at your dog. Apart from its 
being an ungentlemanly habit, it frightens the quail more 
or less, and they will not lie so well to the dog. Ha ! but 
Dash has come down to a point most beautifully, toho ! 
You carefully approach, flush and shoot the bird, and im- 
mediately give your attention to the dog, crying charge ! 
in a strong and emphatic tone; if he breaks, get hold of 
his collar as soon as possible and lash him, and at the 
same time drag him to his 'point and make him charge and 
keep his position until you reload. You then cry hie-up, 
make friends with him, and cast him off — he soon points 
again. You manage to get very near the dog, and 
when you fire, immediately cry charge ! and it would be 
well to accompany " the word with a blow," at this junc- 
ture. You make him charge, reload, cry hie-up, indicate 
the point where the bird has fallen, and command him to 
hie fetch ! He gayly and gladly does your bidding with- 
out mouthing your bird. You cast him off again, and 
always manage to control him after you fire — never, never 
suffering him to break shot without feeling the lash. Re- 
member this is the most critical time for yourself and dog. 
Never suffer yourself to become excited ; do not for some 
time fire more than one barrel, that you may sooner give 
your attention to Dash, and you will accomplish much if 
you can be near enough to Dash to give him the lash as 
he first springs from the point, at the same time crying, 
charge ! If you do not suffer yourself to become excited, 
and lose sight of your dog after your shot, you will soon 



42 DOG AND GUN. 

have liim to drop at the report of the gnn ; but rest as- 
sured, if you let him have his own way a few times, in 
your eagerness to secure game, you will rue it for many 
a day to com.e. You cannot have this fact too strongly 
impressed upon yourself. If you control him from the 
first., your object will be attained. If Dash evinces un 
usual perverseness in this, it will be well to make hirr-. 
charge while on a point. Even should he see a dead bird 
fall, he should not retrieye without permission. 

"Should you wing a bird, do not suffer him to chase it 
It is far better that you shoot it again, or that you lose it, 
than he chase it. You will see the importance of house 
training, and the command charge in particular. It mat- 
ters not at Avhat distance Dash is from you, or how excited 
he may be, he must be taught to obey the word. More 
fine dogs have been ruined by suffering them to break 
shot when young without proper correction, than in any 
other way. Make this a point to be attained, and when 
secured you have a trained dog, as everything else is early 
attained. With the exception of making Dash charge 
Avhen there is a bevy whirring about him, he may perform 
as well as any old and well-broken dog. You can make 
him close-on, steady, and toho, and keep him upon the 
point by the command as long as you desire. Never suf- 
fer him to flush the game for you, or you may ruin him. 
I came near ruining the best dog I ever owned, by making 
him flush. He was very young, and under perfect con- 
trol : I could make him point, close-on, and hie-on to a 
bevy when I wished. I began by making him flush for 
me when under thick cover, so that I might have a better 
snap shot, by being at a proper distance when the bird 
first rose from the ground. After behaving beautifully 
for a short time, he concluded that he understood his duty 
better than I did ; consequently, after pointing as long as 
he thought necessary, he would flush without regard to 



FIELD TRAINING. 43 

the command. Sorely, sorely did this mis-step trouble me 
before I broke liim of tlie habit ;. but by patience I finally 
succeeded, by making him charge upon the point, and 
flushing myself." 

" When your dog points a hare, be sure to shoot it in its 
form, and never let him chase it. It is impossible to keep 
him from sometimes pointing it, but you can and must 
prevent chasing." 



CHAPTER YI. 

REMARKS ON TRAININa 

The most that can be done in the way of conveying 
instruction, in regard to the training of dogs, without prac- 
tical illustration, is to state the results to be attained, to- 
gether with an outline of the mode by which to reach 
them. In practice, the details Avill necessarily vary very 
considerably. One man will find this mode, another that, 
to be most efficient ; besides which, the disposition of the 
particular animal sought to be controlled, will in a con- 
siderable degree aflfect the character of the training to which 
he is to be subjected. After all, the knowledge which is to 
be imparted to sporting dogs, is comprised in the under- 
standing of a very few terms — and the great idea in their 
education is the enforcement of a jprompt, unhesitating 
ijhedience to every command. For myself, though no great 
advocate of the whip, I believe that no dog, up to the high- 
est standard of sporting finish, has ever been turned out, 
without having the great principle of obedience flogged 
into him, very early in life. A dog may be conxed into 
performing the charge, in a slow, slovenly, reluctant man- 
ner ; but whenever you see him drop at the crack of your 
gun, as if the load were driven through his head, you 
may set it down that that dog associates promptness with 
escape from severe punishment. I may be wrong ; but 
my opinion is, that those who would discard the whip en- 
tirely, are persons who would not in the field, among dogs 
which found and pointed birds, know the difference be- 

(44) 



COLOR AND FORM. 45 

tween a perfectly well-broken pointer and a " pot-liunt- 
ing cur." 

In my last chapter, I gave the mode adopted by a 
friend whose success is equal to, if not greater than, that 
of any Southern sportsman I know. I now present, in 
his own words, the method of managing dogs practised by 
Mr. 0. W. Cooter, of Havana, New York, a breaker of 
great experience, and whose establishment, though not 
large, will be as apt to supply a well-bred and Avell-broke 
dog, as any in the country. Mr. C, it will be observed, 
for convenience, adopts the dialogue form, the purchasing 
visitor being supposed to be inspecting his kennels : 

MR. COOTER'S METHOD. 

" 0. — As you are desirous to know my method, sir, I will 
just take this black and tan setter bitch — she is three years 
old, was brought over the water, and I got her for sixty 
dollars. Although well broke, she does not come up to 
some that I have broke in this country, and so I have 
found all English broke dogs ; the habits of the birds and 
the covers are so different, that a dog takes two years to 
become acquainted. 

*' She was last put to the black and tan dog two years 
old. You see they resemble each other in shape and style 
of movement ; these points I consider of great impor- 
tance." 

" H. — Do you not think that the dog would get stronger 
pups, was he, say, three or four years old?" 

** C. — Unquestionably ; but then as I have none older, I 
prefer the colors to match, than to put that splendid red 
dog, although I v»^ould do that in preference to any other 
colors." 

" H. — Then you think colors ought to be attended to as 
well as form ?" 

** C. — Certainly I do j'and disposition, constitution and 



46 DOG AND GUN. 

purity of blood, ought always to be looked at, and then we 
sliould not have so many indifferent pups in a litter. And 
I would beg to state here, that I would not cross a setter 
and pointer upon any account. I have bred many litters, 
but the trouble comes in when you require to continue 
breeding. I go for pure setter or pure pointer^ 
" H. — In that, sir, I agree with all my heart." 
" C. — When I perceive symptoms of the bitch comingin 
heat, which she will show five or six days before she will 
take the dog — I place her and. the dog in a safe room 
together, so as to play — by so doing, I find that the bitch 
will become more attached, and therefore 7?iark her pups 
more after the dog. As soon as I have seen the bitch 
stinted, I remove the dog for a day, and then place them 
together again for another twenty-four hours. I then re- 
move the dog entirely, and as soon as the nine days of 
heat are over, I let the dog and bitch take a walk with 
me, and if no inclination is shown in the bitch for the dog, 
I consider her safe to go nine weeks from the first stint- 
ing. As I feed all my dogs with boiled Indian meal 
mixed with cold milk, the bitch gets a share, but if she 
gets too fat I put her under chain." 

" H. — Would you recommend flesh to a bitch V 
" C. — -By no means, as that often breeds mange and hu- 
mors, which will come out on the pups. I provide a warm 
bed in a shady situation, and always leave the bitch alone 
to pup — give her a good clean bed of pine shavings, and 
remove the dead pups the next day. Let the pups be 
well fed on new milk and old corn mush as soon as they 
will eat ; wean them at five weeks. By applying brine 
to the slut's teats, you will soon dry her up and have her 
ready for a hunt. I always let the bitch be loose when 
suckling her pups." 

" H. — Would you use medicine at such times ?" 

"0. — If a bitch or dog is sick, I go to the Field Sports of 



BREAKING THE PUPS. 47 

* Herbert^ or * Yoiiatt,' and take a recipe for tlie disease, 
but at all other times I use nothing but stone sulphur in 
their drinking water." 

**H. — Do you keep setter and pointer pups in the same 
kennel?" 

'' C. — I prefer not, as I think the pointer requires a 
warmer house, and so I act, letting the pups out for a run 
once a week. I couple them two and two together until 
the open fields are reached, and then turn them loose, and 
always walk slowly myself in a zigzag way across the 
field. By so doing they will acquire the habit of quar- 
tering their ground. Should any attempt to scale the 
fence before you, turn your back on him and walk off, 
giving one sharp whistle — of course you will use the 
whistle and gun at feeding time every evening." 

"H. — But would you not commence breaking the pups 
in the house ?" 

" C. — No, sir ! I have broken many dogs in England, 
and have handled nearly five hundred in the United 
States, and my plan has been to let the pups be exercised 
in the above way, until they are ten months old. I never 
take a gun in the field, but allow them to hunt and chase 
without chiding them ; by so doing I find they acquire 
the method of finding birds when they have secreted 
themselves — it gives them a bolder appearance, and con- 
fidence in themselves." 

*' H. — Why, this is a new idea, and I must know how 
you proceed." 

*' 0. — As soon as I find that a young dog has got bold in 
his gallop, and hunts for game — supposing him to be from 
ten to fourteen months old — I take him with one or two 
well broke dogs, out very early in the morning, and let him 
run for one or two hours. He will then become a little 
tired, and in that time will have scared up some game, so 
that I will know where to take him back to find ; but 



48 DOG AND GUN. 

before I do so, I couple the pup with one old dog ; as soon 
as the shigle (broke) dog points, the other broke dog will 
back him ; or if I hold up my hand, he will stop, which 
compels the young one to do so ; if not, walk up to the 
pair, and pusli the pup down ; he will get up, then push 
him down again, and continue to do so, saying each time 

* charge r but not aloud, to scare the game — a good box 
on the ears with the hand will assist this first lesson. 
Walk backwards each time towards the pointing dog, then 
kill the bird ; the well broke dog will not move whilst you 
stand still yourself. When the gun is re-loaded and cap- 
ped, say * hold up/' or * whistle ;' this will start the 
three in motion ; the old dog will be sure to point the 
dead bird. The word ' toho,' or * charge,' will stop the 
pair, and another box on the ears will get the pup on his 
belly. Then I pick up the dead bird myself, and walk 
back to the pup and show it to him — see that he smells 
the feet, but should he desire to bite it, say ^charge!' or 

* toho r and press my foot on his toes ; this tells him he 
must not catch it. Fronf the time the point was made, 
you have wasted half an hour. I then follow the same 
system for an hour or two ; if I do not find game, I dis- 
charge the gun at times, and make the dogs ' charge,' 
and after re-loading, drop my dead bird, unseen, and then 
call the coupled dogs up, showing them as before ; by this 
time the pup has become docile without the whip. You 
can then let him loose, but put a bed-cord on him, with a 

* rag ' at the other end. He will commence hunting, 
and should the old dogs make a point, or you think the 
pup is on the scent of game, walk quietly towards the rag, 
step on it, and as that stops him, say ' toho r Should 
he be anxious to get on, take the cord in your hand, and 
jerk him back a foot or two — then say ^steady !' and as 
he draws on, stop him again and again, until the bird is 
*pointedf^ and then shoot the bird on the ground, if pos- 



BREAKING THE PUPS. 49 

sible. Do not * yell ' or scold, but be as cool as you 
would in sitting down to dinner among ladies. I have 
followed this plan for years, ivhen alone, and never knew 
it fail. But let me here state that a man cannot do it 
who is desirous to ohtain game. I am well pleased if I 
can kill from three to five birds in a six hours' tramp. As 
soon as the young dog begins to lag, kill a few birds over 
the old ones, and they will be well pleased with their 
day's work. The next day take your young dog with one 
old one, put the check cord on the youngster, and see that 
he does not commit a fault. Should he be a wilful dog, 
you must Avhip him ; but the check cord will do wonders, 
if the master is particular to attend to the young dog. 
He will now begin to point his game well, and do not by 
any means allow him to get hold of a bird, but keep him 
to drop at the discharge of the gun — when told to * hold 
up ' — to draw up to the dead bird and point it, and then 
pick it up yourself. In three days your pup will be quite 
a dog. Give him a day's rest at times, but keep at him »i 
part of three or four days a week for six weeks. If the 
dog is intended for yourself, I would not allow him to 
'fetch' the first year; but as I have to break dogs for 
gentlemen, I have to teach them to * fetch ' before they 
go home. I therefore adopt the following plan :" 

** H. — Do I understand you the pup has not as yet been 
taught to * fetch ' anything ?" 

" C. — Certainly, and for this reason : A dog that has 
been taught about the house, is often fooled (by a boy) 
unknown to yourself, and when you desire him to 'fetch,' 
he will then often cause you a great deal of trouble, and 
sometimes become hard mouthed ; and again a dog that 
is taught to * fetch ' will often break * shot ' when he sees 
the bird drop." 

" My plan is this : After shooting over one or two — I 
prefer three — young dogs, and they have become per- 
3 



50 DOG AND GUN. 

fectly steady to j^oint game^ to * back * another dog, to 
* drop' at ^shot,' and to point a dead bird, I take a single 
dog into a room, and then show him a live winged bird — 
game, of course — after holding the bird and playing with 
the dog a few moments, I cast the bird from me, saying at 
the same time, '■fetch ' it, in a kind voice. He will most 
always do so ; if not, play with him again, open the door, 
and toss the bird into the darkest corner of the room. He 
will then lift the bird, and as he comes out of the door, 
catch him, and take the bird away, and reward him with 
a piece of cake. I follow this plan two or three times a 
day, taking care not to tire the dog of this new sjport. 
Keep him from the field for three days, and then take him 
aloTie, kill game, and see that he points his dead bird as 
before, and then tell him to '■fetch r Should a young dog 
lift a bird before these lessons, do not chide him, but speak 
kind, and walk from him immediately. He will then 
come running after you, and then take the bird, but do not 
recompense him by flattery,' 

*' H. — Well, this is a new system, for I have always con- 
sidered that a dog must be broke under the * whip.' " 

" C. — The whip is a good article in its place, for an old, 
headstrong dog, but the check-cord is better even than that 
in such a case, as it does not cow a dog down like the 
whip. I mver walk up a bird, but, let the dog be ever so 
staunch, stoop down and pat him, or even pvsh him — for 
this reason : how many good shots you will lose if your dog 
will not go into a piece of thick brush, and let you stand 
on the outside ! Should a dog jump on to his game, walk 
so as to be able to tread on the check-cord, every foot ; 
this will make him crej^jp like a cat up to his bird. Should 
a dog puzzle or nose the ground, stop him at once by the 
puzzle peg, which is made in this way : Take a piece of 
pine board nine inches long, whittle off six inches to the 
size of your finger — the ather end should resemble the 



COST OF A GOOD POINTER. 51 

palm of your hand. Tix four wire staples at each corner 
to run a string or small strap to ; tie one string at the 
back of the ears — the other should slip over the tusk of 
the lower jaw. I once shot with a keeper in Kent, Eng- 
land, who always used it, and his dogs were noted for the 
style they made their game at a distance." 

" H. — Well, sir, I have heard of your dogs being well 
broken, and I will take a pair. What are your prices V* 

" 0. — We cliarge $60 for a pointer or setter that does not 
fetch, but broken to point live and dead game, and drop 
at shot, $75, for either pointer or setter that has all the 
above qualities, and ' fetches.' Should you like your 
purchase, you or your friends can send us a draft, and 
state the size they require, also the three best colors they 
approve of, and we will ship them by express from New 
York City." 



CHAPTER YII. 

ADVICE TO THE SPORTSMAN. 

Among the various contributions I have received from 
sportsmen in different sections of the country, I find the 
two which follow. It may be said of them, that each in- 
culcates a good lesson to the gunner. The first illustrates 
the folly of some good men and good sportsmen in a cer- 
tain particular; the second, how egregiously the inexpe- 
rienced hand may be deceived in the character and capacity 
of a dog. And I will take occasion here to remark, that 
in my opinion very few dogs are ever too impetuous, or, 
as it is often termed, high-strung, if training is commenced 
sufficiently early and continued assiduously and without inter- 
ruption. It is, however, a settled thing in my mind, that 
an animal of the highest degree of courage and game, 
cannot be allowed to run wild until he is from six months 
to a year old, and then be broken into perfect steadiness 
with any reasonable amount of drilling and punishment. 
Mejudice, the proper age to begin the training of a puppy, 
is from six weeks to two months. Any puppy of that 
age can be taught, in from, ten minutes to as many hours, 
to obey the order to " charge,'" with perfect promptness. 
Nothing else need be taught him for some little time ; 
but a constant practice of this, until it becomes a " second 
nature" to obey it like a flash, with his quarters hand- 
somely under him, his paws extended in front, and his 
head between them and well down on the ground — and to 
remain, with the passiveness of death itself, for half an 
hour, if required. Day in and day out, should he be 

(62) 



**GUNS UP." 53 

practised at this duty, and the more regular and the longer 
the lessons are, the better dog will he he. 

The sketches I suLjoin are from a Northern sportsman, 
to whom I am already under obligations. I give first — 

GUNS UP! 

OR, A DAY WITH A GOOD SHOT. 

Speaking of the improper and careless way in which 
some sportsmen handle their guns, brings to mind a day's 
shooting I once had with one of the quickest shots I ever 
hunted with. We will term him Frank, for convenience. 
He had written me to inform him when I would have two 
or three dogs for sale, and the most convenient time for 
him to come and try them. In answer, I wrote him that I 
had three, whose colors grouped well together, and which 
matched well for size, action, and temper ; and the best 
time for a trial was about the first of September in the 
North. He came as appointed, and after a late dinner 
and segars we retired early fo bed. Frank was up early, 
and dressed for shooting — a clean, laminated steel seven- 
pound gun, diamond powder, and number seven English 
shot — a pocket full of caps, and a small flask of brandy. 
Thus equipped, after breakfast Ave started for the stubbles 
close by my house. The dogs had been let loose for an 
hour, to empty themselves, and now went off with the 
word hie-on, in a dashing style. I will here describe the 
dogs: "Czar," an orange white setter; " Shot," a red 
and white, with black tinge on the red, setter ; and " Don," 
a fawn and white pointer. They were all two years old, 
and the price I put on them was $260. I noticed at start- 
ing that Frank handled his gun in a careless way, and 
told him that a gun pointed continually at me was often 
the cause of making me nervous. His reply was, that I 
need not fear him, as he had shot for years. As I said 



54 DOG AND GUN. 

above, the dogs went to work in a gay style, and soon 
crossed a couple of fields ; when, as we mounted the thh'd 
fence, a fine bevy of quail raised and dropped into a corn- 
field close by, and as the dogs went up the wind, ** Czar'' 
made a point, and as I whistled " Shot" and '* Don" 
turned in their range and backed him ; but as he com- 
menced drawing, the three were soon together — each one 
anxious to make the game, but as I had marked the birds, 
we went on, and in the next field '* Don" and " Czar" 
pointed togethei", * Shot' backing them a short Avay oif. 
We now walked quietly up, and as we came within three 
or four yards, the word " hold-aj),^^ in a gentle voice, 
caused them to creep on towards the game ; and now the 
three form a jncture — each dog points in a different atti- 
tude, with tails straight, necks extended, and lips quiver- 
ing. I asked Frank if he thought that style suited him. 
He exclaimed, " The sight is worth a journey to see !" 
and at the same time up went the old cock quail. Frank 
dropped him in a moment. The dogs dropped at the dis- 
charge of the gun, and as I had loaded and capped, a 
whistle of gentle tone caused them to raise quietly and 
point staunch. A whistle, and they creep like cats for a 
few yards, when " burr," ** burr," and the whole bevy 
flew in a scattered form in all directions. I dropped my 
single bird, (shooting as I do with a single-barrel gun). 
The dogs "charged." I then turned to Frank, who said 
he had got a pair down, and had marked the rest in the 
same place as myself. We now re-loaded, and the dogs 
being hied-on, they went up to the place where the birds 
had lain, and then on to the dead birds, which they point- 
ed. I asked Frank to pick up the bird under " Don's" 
nose, whilst I picked up the single bird and turned to find 
Frank's other brace. The dogs hunted them carefully, 
but only found one, ar.d as they seemed to trail towards a 
ditch, I got Frank to go and stand above it, whilst I went 



**GUNS UP." 65 

with the dogs below to give them the wind, and as the 
dogs hunted carefully, I observed the winged bird dodg- 
ing among the weeds ; and getting within a couple of 
yards, I took the liberty of removing its head. This plan 
I prefer, sooner than let the dogs chase after it, as that 
often causes dogs to flush the next birds they come to. 
While re-loading, I was startled by the shot of Frank's 
gun whizzing by me. It appeared, by his account, that 
he had placed the gun across his shoulders, and 'in turning 
around, the cock caught by a tAvig which raised it suffi- 
ciently to strike the cap and explode. He had shot a 
sapling asunder just about the height of my head, which 
caused me to think it a better subject to experiment upon 
than the head of a father of six children. 

We now went on. Finding three bevies more, Frank 
bagged his pair out of each ; but as to myself, I was suffi- 
ciently engaged in trying to dodge the muzzle of Frank's 
gun, as he sometimes dropped the same in a line for my 
heart, as we mounted a fence, or grasping it with both 
hands across his shoulders. He had became so much ac- 
customed to do so, that his accident nor my continual cau- 
tion of " guns up !" had any effect on him ; and he is not 
the only good shot that has this bad fault. 

We now crossed an old pasture field covered with 
whortle berries, and as the dogs neared a corner down by 
a swamp they all showed symptoms of game, and as we 
came near them, stood in a bold style — when " whirr, 
whirr," went a pair of ruffed grouse, and Frank made a 
handsome right and left of them. While he was re-load- 
ing, three more got up, one after the other, giving me a 
good shot. " Hie-on " to the dogs, when three more birds 
fell to our guns ; one being hit in the eye commenced, 
fluttering, which tempted " Shot" to break from '* c/zar^e," 
and dashing in flushed the rest of the grouse ; which 
offence was rectified by my dragging him back to where 



56 DOG AND GUN. 

he started from and administering a good strapping, ac- 
companied with the words '* charge! " " charge /" After 
making friends with the three dogs, by patting them, they 
commenced pointing the dead birds. *' Czar " had ranged 
into the swamp, and on my calling ''fetch,'" he soon re- 
turned with a winged grouse. 

We now turned towards the places where we had 
marked the different bevies — Frank shooting in a most 
splendid style. Except the careless manner of pointing 
his gun in the direction of your humble servant, and hold- 
ing his hands over the muzzle Avhen seeing me correcting 
the dogs, he was perfection. We now entered the corn 
field, and as I cautioned the dogs with the word " steady,'" 
cock after cock got up, but the corn was so high and 
the weeds so thick, we could not shoot, or see our dogs ; 
and the cocks not being expected there, I proposed to 
leave them for after lunch, and then use my pair of 
spaniels. Therefore, taking a line for the house, we 
crossed the wet grounds that led into the swamp, and 
something close to the dogs flapped up and down again 
by a bush so quick that I could not tell what it was ; but 
the dogs going on soon came to a faint point, and " sceap," 
** sceap," went a pair of jack-sni]3e, — bang, bang, bang, 
and not a bird. I chided the dogs with *' Toho ! toho, 
sirs .?" and then loaded my gun. " Shot " and " Don '' 
now went off to the left, making a stiff point, while 
** Czar," on the right, was retrieving a dead snipe, one of 
the pair he had marked better than us. We now had a 
dozen good shots, bagging nine snipe. We then went to 
the house for luncheon and some home-brewed ale; then 
takings a segar, we rested ourselves until three o'clock. 
I then chained up " Shot " and '•* Czar.'' Calling " Don " 
to heel, we started with " Dash " and " Busy." These'- 
small cockers Avere handsome — but are not the kind I 
would recommend to the young Southern sportsmen. 



RESULT OF A DAY'S SPORT. 57 

The dog best adapted for their use is the Sussex spaniel. 
I have seen them in my native toAvn of Lewes, England, 
as large as a small setter, with ears from six to eight 
inches long. Such dogs would be of immense value in 
cover hunting. Here I would make a mark : As we 
crossed the field, Frank found a quail in his outside pocket 
(he had forgotten to search), and placing the butt of his 
gun on the ground, he held the bird uj) for me to see, and 
while he was so doing " Dash" jumped up to get the bird, 
and as his foot came do^wn, it caught the cock of Frank's 
gun ; and as the hammer was down on the cap (instead of 
being at half-cock)^ another explosion occurred, — taking 
fortunately nothing but Frank's hat brim; but had his 
hand been on the muzzle, one of the best shots in the 
United States would have been minus a finger or two. 

I now sent " Dash " back to the house with the dead 
Quail. He soon returned, and we then went on to- 
wards the cornfield, which was a wet one, and telling 
Frank to get on a stump in the middle, I hicd-on the 
spaniels. As they went barking around, the cock flut- 
tered up and down in all directions, and as Frank shot 
and loaded as quick as he could, *' Dash " retrieved me 
seventeen good autumn cock, in less than two hours. 
As Frank had marked a few birds down off by a piece of 
sprouts, I coupled up "Dash " and " Busy," and then got 
some nice points with " Don." Bagging a few birds, we 
crossed a stubble and found a bevy of quail, which finish- 
ed our day's sport. 

On counting our game, we figured thirty-seven quail, 
six ruffed grouse, twenty-one woodcock, and ten snipe, 
which I think, in the North, a good day for three barrels 
and no marker. Frank, in his letters, when speaking of 
his " Don," " Ozar," and " Shot," concludes with " Guns 
Up V ■ 

3* 



58 DOG AND GUN. 

The reader will not fail to note in the following how 
terribly severe was the training required to subdue a high- 
spirited dog — unsubdued by previous early discipline and 
steady work : 

DOG DEALING, OR TAKING A LESSON. 

Some twenty years ago I was presented with a splen- 
did silver-and- white Pointer, of noted stock, in the south 
of England. Being young myself and my old dogs 
nearly worn out, I named him " Ponto," and if a dog was 
ever worshipped, I believe " Ponto" was my idol, and at 
three months old he would ''fetch " and "■ cJiargcy I be- 
lieve he was as well house-broke as a dog could be up to 
six months of age, when I thought I would commence 
shooting over him. I must here state that the stock of 
" Ponto " was once so fine that a fox hound was intro- 
duced, which gave the breed plenty of foot, and of that 
" Ponto " was a miracle. Well, I hunted " Ponto " nearly 
three months, and could do nothing with him when he 
came on game ; although he would point a winged bird 
in the house, &c. One day a friend who shot on an ad- 
joining estate, came to a spring where I was drinking, 
and offered me a very nice pair of broke dogs for 
" Ponto," I told him I could do nothing with him except 
show him in the house or yard. His answer was, that if 
he could break him, he would suit him, instead of paying 
a duty on two. I traded, and had by far the best of it, 
as I thought ; but judge of my surprise, when I received 
an invitation to shoot with my neighbor two weeks after- 
wards over " Ponto." I went with reluctance, as I ex- 
pected to be annoyed as of old, and even took my pair of 
dogs along. But Bill said " Ponto " would do all the 
work we would want, and so it proved — notwithstanding 
the wind (it being in November). We shot over " Ponto'' 
six hours,- -killing pheasant, partridge, and hares over 



" PONTO." 59 

points, — Bill not speaking a harsh word to the dog all 
day. The dog retrieved, after pointing dead in every in- 
stance ; and before the day was out, I offered ten guineas 
and the pair of dogs back, but I never was the owner of 
*' Ponto " again. After dinner Bill gave me his method 
of fixing " Ponto," by stating that he got the dog fond 
of him, and on the fourth day put a large bag of shot 
round " Ponto's" neck, and then mounting his horse rode 
the distance of forty miles — the dog ranging where ho 
chose. The next day the same dose ; and as soon as he 
got home, took some dinner, and put a long cord on- 
" Ponto," the shot remaining around him besides. At 
three o'clock " Ponto " was going over a stubble flushing 
the remnant of three coveys of Partridge. Bill then took 
him to where he had marked the birds, and by continually 
placing his foot on the cord compelled him to stop with- 
out speaking to him. He continued this until the dusk 
of evening, when he and "Ponto" went home well- 
pleased with each other, and both tired out. Early next 
morning Bill took his gun and commenced hunting in 
earnest, with " Ponto " fixed as before, and, after paying 
particular attention to "Ponto," succeeded in killing six 
partridges over points. He now hunted him four days 
longer with the cord, and then hunted him loose as I had 
done, and the result can be seen from my day's hunt with 
him. Bill was offered long sums for " Ponto," but said 
as he could do a week's work as well as a brace, he was 
what he wanted. Since then I have handled nearly five 
hundred dogs, and have never seen " Ponto's " equal. I 
am satisfied that it was my fault .and not " Ponto's," as I 
commenced letting him ''■fetch " in the field, before I 
taught him in the field to ^'point''^ game, and I never gave 
him — he being so high-strung — sufiicient work, and was 
too anxious to bag game. 



CHAPTER YIII. 
ON THE SHOOTINa OF QUAIL. 

Before introducing a portion of a chapter of Forester* s 
Field Sports, I propose to offer some remarks of my own, 
in regard to the shooting of quail. Hereafter I shall give 
the experience of a friend of mine who has given a lauda- 
ble attention to the hahits of the bird and the mode of 
hunting him. 

Perhaps I shall have no better opportunity than just in 
this connection, to express the contempt with which every 
well-bred man must view the practice of taking quail in 
nets. It is a practice which obtains quite extensively in this 
region, and which will continue while gentlemen sportsmen 
treat those who are guilty of it as anything else than 
pot-hunting vagabonds. I do not mean that all who in- 
dulge in the villainous practice are worthless characters — 
though a majority of them are — but that the thing itself is 
so vile an outrage upon all sportsmanship, humanity, and 
magnanimity, that no man who knows better ought to coun- 
tenance his best neighbor if he will not discontinue it. 
We have now in Eastern Alabama a great abundance of 
quail, except in certain netting localities. Where they are 
taken in that way, the bird is absolutely swept away, in 
particular neighborhoods. I have known a thousand birds 
captured within a week, by two or three parties using these 
infernal machines during a cold, sleety spell of weather, 
when the quail is always loth to take wing. 

Another mode by which the quail is decimated, at least, 



WITHHOLDING THE SCENT. 61 

is by traps. These are set mostly by boys and negroes, 
in plantation enclosures. Two or three active sportsmen, 
however, will generally keep trapping down, by kicking 
the little pens to pieces wherever they find them; and they 
are almost certain to come upon every one within the 
range of their shooting. Those who take an interest in 
the preservation of game hirds, ought by all means to 
prevent their servants from trapping the bevies which feed 
on their plantations. 

There are a good many yet who are disbelierers as to 
the faculty of withholding its scent, which most sportsmen 
attribute to the quail. The fact is of such frequent occur- 
rence, that I should despair of making a fair sportsman of 
any one who had never noted it for himself. A majority 
of bevies will resort to this means of self-preservation the 
second time they have been badly worried by the sports- 
man. I have observed that the full bevy attacked for the 
first time rarely does so. 

When it is discovered that birds are withholding the 
scent — that is, when, after having accurately marked them, 
your dog fails to point upon coming where you know they 
settled — the best plan is to go off and sit down for half an 
hour. Rest your dog and yourself. By the time you 
have accomplished this, if you will return to where 
the birds settled, depend upon it, your dog will begin to 
come down handsomely. I have tried this time and again, 
and I do not remember that it ever failed. 

In regard to running levies, there is one point as to 
which I differ with Forester. He recommends, when the 
bird is disposed to act thus, an attempt, by taking a circuit, 
to come around on the opposite side, which is likely to 
make the birds stop and huddle. This it undoubtedly 
generally does do ; but in this country, if you attempt to 
cut off the bevy from its covert in the branch swamp or 
the blackberr}^ briar patch, it will lie until you kick it up 



62 DOG AND GUX. 

almost, and then wliizz under your very nose in tlie origi- 
nal direction. I kno^v no more awkward shots than those 
thus obtained. I prefer following the birds, with tlie pre- 
cautions mentioned by Forester, (checking the dog with 
stcndy ! steady! tolio ! ) When they reach the grass at 
the edge of the swamp, or the old fence near by, ten to one 
they will lie. You put them up, and take the chances for 
snap shots as they pitch into the covert. I have had a 
pretty good experience in heading off bevies, and my de- 
liberate opinion is that it will not pay. 

The morning — early morning — is much the best time 
for shooting quail. The heavier the dew, or frost, the 
better. It has two advantages : the birds lie better, and 
the scent is much stronger. 

The dry sedge fields (that is, fields turned out to rest, 
and grown up with tall sedge grass,) afford the finest 
sport. The birds, however, seldom frequent these to any 
great extent until the peas of the cornfield are exhausted. 
While these remain, the quail lies close by in his covert, 
and a very short time, morning and evening, suffices to 
fill his craw with his favorite grain. However, if you can 
find sedge surrounding a stubble field, lately in oats or 
wheat, you may expect great sport early in the season. 

In shooting quail, most persons fire too soon, and in 
their ardor fail to hit. The truth is, if two birds are 
simultaneously flushed and fly off in different directions, 
there is just about time enough for a fair shot, of good 
nerves, to kill both, cleverly within range. Your first 
bird may be taken down at twenty to twenty-five yards ; 
your second, at thirty to forty-five. But the tyro will 
bang away as soon as the birds get up ; and it takes some 
time to show the green hand the absurdity of shooting 
without aim, through the just -risen bevy, expecting to 
kill a dozen, more or less. It is seldom that more than 
one is thus got, and it is generally mangled, because the 



" STEADY I STEADY ! TO HO ! " 63 

shot have not had time and distance enough to disperse 
properly. I was always the awkwardest of hands to 
shoot at bevies, and, finding this to be the case, for con- 
venience sake endeavor always to take doAvn the extreme 
bird on the right and on the left. This prevents, to some 
extent, the confusion that besets me inveterately when I 
keep my eyes on the centre of the whirring crowd. 

Marking birds accurately is very difficult. It can only 
be acquired by experience. Green hands are invariably 
deceived. Fortster gives as a n^le (and it is a good one), 
never to believe a bird settled no matter how low he may 
have been scudding, at a particular point, unless you have, 
seen a flap of his wings. He is down then, swe ! 

I give now an extract from Forester : 

" I have found it impossible to get up early enough to 
do execution from any country tavern, if one waits until 
a hot breakfast is prepared. My method, therefore, is to 
take with me a cold ham, or a cold hunter's round, and 
to have the table laid over night, in addition to that, with 
bread, butter, and cold milk, on which, for my part, I can 
breakfast very satisfactorily. 

" This done, if you know the country, go to the place 
where are the most and likeliest grain stubbles lying near 
to good woodland or coppice covert, and beat them regu- 
larly, in such a manner that the woods shall be down- 
wind of your beat. Let your dogs, however, beat every 
field up-Avind, by which means they will scent their birds 
one-third farther than if you go down-wind. 

" Look especially to the sides of the field, particularly 
if they are bushy ; quail do not affect the middle even 
of the stubbles on which they feed. 

'* If your dogs trail a running bevy, never run or hurry 
them. They are, if you do so, nearly sure to flush them 
wild. Be, on the contrary, very steady yourself, and cry 
"Steady! steady! toho!" words to which dogs should 



64 DOG AND GUN. 

be accustomed early. If they point firmly, and are so 
very staunch that you can depend on them, it is not a 
bad plan to make a wide circuit, and get ahead of the 
bevy, which even if wild and running, will often Sjq^uat on 
finding itself enclosed between the dog and the gun, and 
thus afford good shooting. 

'' If you drive a bevy of Quail into good covert, be not 
in haste to follow it. It will stay there, be sure ; and you 
will find them far more certainly after half an hour has 
elapsed. For myself, I have found it the best plan, 
where woods are small, and the covert thick, to go on 
beating the open fields, without following the bevies at 
all, in the first instance, marking them down carefully 
when they rise, until the feeding and running hour has 
passed, — then to follow bevy after bevy, whither you have 
seen them alight; and knowing their whereabout, if not 
the exact spot where they lie, the dogs will soon find 
them, 

" Otherwise, if one wastes the morning in killing off one 
bevy, by the time he has done with it, the birds will have 
crept away into their hiding-places, and he may hunt the 
wood-skirts and brush-holes all day along, without finding 
another, even where they abound, unless he blunder upon 
one by chance. 

" During the heat of the day, if one have not found 
birds in the morning, although it is pretty much chance 
work, bog meadows, brown bushes on southerly and 
westerly hill-sides, old pastures with much bent and rag- 
wort, and the skirts of coppices, are generally the best 
ground, though in some regions they will be found in 
Jarge open woodlands. 

" In the afternoon, soon after four o'clock, the bevies 
again begin to run and feed, and in this part of the day 
they will frequently be met running along the grassy 
margins of streams which flow through pasture-fields, 



GENERAL ADVICE. 65 

whither they resort to drink, or at least to crop the wet 
herbage. 

*' So good is the chance of sport at this time, that I 
would urge it strongly on the sportsman who has failed 
of finding his bevies on the feeding ground in the morn- 
ing — if he know that there is a fair show of birds in the 
district — not to persist in wearing out himself and his 
dogs, by fruitless toil in the heat of noon, but rather to 
await the cool afternoon, when he will very often make 
up for lost time, and make a heavy bag when circum- 
stances looked least auspiciously. 

" I have now set my sportsman fairly in the field, and 
shown him how best he may find his birds, — more is be- 
yond my means. 

**A crack shot must in some sort be born; but most 
persons with good eyesight, and steady nerves, may 
attain to respectability, if not excellence, in this gentle- 
manlike and meanly art. 

" To this end, practice and coolness are the great de- 
siderata. Rules, I think, avail little, if anything. I 
have seen men shoot excellently who closed one eye to 
take aim — excellently who shot with both open, — never, 
however, I must admit, decently, who shut both — not, by 
the way, a very uncommon occurrence with beginners. 
I have seen men again shoot excellently, carrying their 
guns at full cock — excellently, who never cocked either 
barrel till in the act of firing. 

" There is, however, one thing to be observed, — no man 
can shoot well in covert, or at snap shots, who follows his 
bird with his gun, or dwells on his aim — the first sight 
is always the best ; and it is deliberate promptitude in 
catching this first sight which alone constitutes — what 
my poor friend, J. Cypress, Junior, used to call the rarest 
work of nature — n. truly cool, truly quick, crack shotJ^ 



CHAPTEE IX. 

DUCK SHOOTING— THK MALLAKD. 

1 

Of all tlie shooting that I know anything of, in this 
section, duck shooting, in favorable localities, affords by 
all odds the finest sport. The mallard, especially! is a 
game bird of the first order. He is strong and swift of 
pinion, and, when once alarmed, difficult of approach. 
Few birds carry off shot better than he ; and the gun and 
the gunner that take him down, regularly and certainly 
whenever he gets up, within range, need both to be a lit- 
tle better than " middling." At the first of the season, 
perhaps, this duck will show himself quite unwary, and 
may be killed with ease in any of the ponds he frequents. 
But shoot about his resort a few times, and you will then 
have to deal with one of the most watchful and cunning 
rascals in the world. It will not happen once in an hun- 
dred times that you will see him as soon as he sees you. 
His keen vision descries you two or three hundred yards 
up the creek, as you Crawl stealthily along, and if ever 
once before frightened by man, he will take wing on the 
instant. His sense of hearing is most wonderfully acute : 
break but a twig, however small, and at once he is upon 
his guard ! 

The mallard is common to all waters of the South. 
After the *' first cold spell in November," our rivers and 
many of our creeks contain hundreds of the species. 
With them we most commonly find the beautiful wood 
duck, commonly known as the striped head. In the wa- 
ters of the Alabama, very early or very late in the season, 

(66) 



WHERE AND HOW TO SHOOT. 67 

a great many green or hlue-winged teal accompany the 
mallard in his visits ; the former appearing in the fall, 
the latter in the spring. 

Most of oiir shooting in the interior is done on the nu- 
merous creeks into which the ducks go in large numbers 
from the rivers. Very cold weather, when high winds 
prevail, is sure to drive up thousands of them to the Let- 
ter-protected waters of the smaller streams. At first, as 
I have hinted above, they are apt to be anything but 
wild ; first-rate opportunities are plentiful to get shots at 
large flocks — but presently they change their tactics en- 
tirely, and if they continue numerous, must be approached 
in the most artistic manner to get shots at all. As a gen- 
eral rule, however, on the streams they frequent they 
usually have favorite spots for feeding or disporting them- 
selves, to which they quite regularly resort. It is impor- 
tant, then, to the hunter, to acquaint himself with these 
localities, and to mark their approaclics accurately. For 
instance, here is quite a deep hole of eddy water just at 
this bend of the creek. At its lower end, a log crosses the 
stream, and on it the ducks frequently may be seen stand- 
ing in a long row. There is but one — -just one — way in which 
the hunter can escape their observant eyes. Before he 
has got within two hundred yards of his game, (as he 
goes down the creek,) he must take a circuit out from the 
stream — out far enough to prevent the possibility of his 
being seen. When arrived at a point exactly opposite the 
eddy water, he takes a *' bee line" for it — taking care 
only to avoid noise ; for the high bank on the side of the 
creek he is on, shuts him out from the view of the ducks 
completely. He is thus able, by careful threading of his 
way, to creep up on the unsuspecting flock, and put one 
barrel in on the water, and the other as they rise. Had 
he omitted the detour, he would almost inevitably have 
been brought by the winding of the creek into some posi- 



68 DOG A\D (\\:S^ 

tion whence he could be seen by the ducks, and would 
have obtained no shot. It is of the first consequence, 
then, in duck-shooting on creeks, to Imoio your ground ac- 
curately. If you have a companion, too, v/ho is also well 
informed as to the haunts of the birds, it is all the better. 
It is usual with dacks, disturbed on streams such as we 
indicate, to fly only one, two, or three hundred yards, 
from one favorite spot to another. This enables two per- 
sons to hunt them to great advantage. Thus A and B 
are points on the stream at which the ducks feed. You 
and your friend are hunting down the creek. You, be- 
fore getting within ear-shot of A, make such a detour as 
I have described above, and by means of it approach B, 
within clear shot of which you lie perdu, awaiting the 
operations of your friend at A, which is, say, a couple of 
hundred yards above you. He steals upon the ducks at 
A, fires upon and rousts them, and they incontinently 
direct their flight down to B, where you await them. In 
the act of settling on the water, you give them one bar- 
rel, and as they rise in thick confusion, with a terrible 
flapping and quacking, you put in your second barrel 
with terrible effect. Your friend then slips around to 
the distant point D, and conceals himself, Avhiie you 
roust them from the intermediate point C, and drive 
them down to him. In this way two men will generally 
kill a great many ducks, if they are patient, light of foot, 
and know the ground accurately The last is the main point. 
Shooting on the rivers is generally done by two parties, 
in as many canoes; whereof one keeps under the willows 
of one bank, and the other of the other Vjank. It is usu- 
al, I believe, to have two gunners — one in the bow and 
the other in the middle of the boat — and a paddle in each 
boat. Each canoe hugging the shore, (near which the 
ducks are generally found,) and proceeding pari pa^sw, 
the ducks often afford shots to both parties. 



THE "how" continued. 69 

Geperally in these hunts, tents, etc., are taken along, 
and the hunters, going slowly and carefully along through 
the day, make it convenient to get out with their lug- 
gage, late in the afternoon, near some roosting j^onds. 
Some of the party arrange the camp on the river hank, 
while others go to the ponds to shoot the ducks as they 
come into roost. There is no finer sport than this. How- 
ever, like most good things, it does not last very long. 
The ducks come in between sundown and dark, and the 
more they have been shot at, the later they make it in 
going to roost. Other things being equal, it is much bet- 
ter.for the sportsman to stand so as to face the west. The 
lingering ra^'s, (the ducks being between him and the de- 
parted sun,) assist a great deal. If it is a good pond, and 
the hunter is full early at it, most probably as he is going 
ofiF into a fit of abstraction, he is roused by a distant 
plaintive whistle — the note of the wood duck — and the 
next thing is a sharp whizzing overhead, and then a sud- 
den plump of perhaps a dozen striped heads into the dark 
placid waters before him. Presently a far-off quack is heard, 
and in a moment a flock of mallard whizz by him. Crack! 
crack ! at this end of the willowy pond ; and as they rush 
on with cleaving wing, crack ! crack ! at the other end. 
These are the advance parties. Directly they come in 
thick and fast. Wood duck on this hand, maallard on 
that ! Whistle and quack are heard on all sides ; from all 
quarters they burst in — the air is thick with them, and 
the water in a continual splash. But it is growing darker 
every minute. There, opposite you, is an open space be- 
tween the thick branches of the swamp trees. Keep your 
gaze on that — every now and then it is darkened with 
the rushing crowd. Pitch it into them, coolly. Load and 
reload calmly but quickly ; and when it is too dark at 
length to shoot, why, perforce, you must desist. Your 
dog, if you have one, must be kept at work retrieving. 



70 DOG AND GUN. 

It is of no use to go to one of the ponds " in the morn- 
ing" to recover your ducke. The minks will have left 
you nothing but a few feathers. 

Immense numbers are killed in this way, by experienced 
hunters. Like every other thing, however, simple as it 
seems, a little experience is necessary to give one ** the 
hang." The excitement to a beginner is very apt to be 
overwhelming. The ducks come in with a flight so rapid 
— from this side and that — the ring of their pinions and 
their cries make so mingled a din — their numbers are often 
so great — that the tyro cannot but be confused. This will 
soon wear off, though, and then the man who loveth our 
art is " in clover." With his rough retriever — half bull 
terrier and half setter, or perhaps with the blood of these 
and a dash of Newfoundland to give him more weight bone 
and endurance — he knows that so soon as the shooting is 
over, he can recover all his game from among the willows 
and flags of the pond. So he blazes away while Don re- 
mains quiet, half hid by an old log, with only his head 
half raised, and his eyes gleaming, as he recognises the 
sound of the wings of the approaching squadrons. He 
knows full well that his time will come directly. 



CHAPTEE X. 

A WOODCOCK STORY-QUAIL. 

It is rare in this region that we have a chance at 
Snipe and Woodcock ; notwithstanding, season before 
last, myself and sporting friends managed to kill eighteen 
or twenty Woodcock (speaking of Woodcock, thereby 
hangs a tale), and quite a number of Snipe. Notwith- 
standing Snipe will sometimes afford fine sport, even in 
this region, I would advise you by all means to keep 
your pupil from their baleful injiucnce. I never knew a 
young Pointer to hunt them Avithout its doing him great 
harm. They will rarely lie well to the dog, consequently 
he soon becomes unsteady. None save an old and staunch 
dog should go after Snipe. Such has been my experi- 
ence, as well as that of my sporting friends. 

Speaking of Woodcock above, I mentioned that there- 
by hangs a tale. I must give it to you : You must know 
T have a female friend who is decidedly fast for her age. 
She is perfectly au fait upon anything appertaining to 
literature, music, science, and the table. She is decidedly 
epicurean in her tastes, and while suffering from the demon 
Dyspepsia, often has been the time I have been bene- 
fited by her nice things, &c. (God bless her! may her 
shadow never grow less !) You must know that a few 
months agone she paid a visit to the city of Gotham, 
where her epicurean taste was delighted with the game 
of the season. Woodcock among the rest. Frequent, 
earnest, and spicy were her dissertations upon the game 
birds of the North — Woodcock in particular. Well, 

(71) 



72 . DOG AND GU\. 

while out one evening with dog and gun, an unhicky 
bird, with a large black body and v(irij red head chanced 
to pass within range of my gun. I fired, and redhead, 
vulgarly called Woodcock, was brought down. I pro- 
posed to my sporting friend that we should try and pass 

it upon Miss as the Simon-pure game bird. He 

acceding, when we returned,. I hastened with a gleeful 
countenance to lay my prize before my fair friend, telling 
her that I had just killed a great favorite of hers— a 
Woodcock — and that she should prepare it for herself 
alone. She hearing its name — Woodcock! — (Oh, ye!) 
Avas perfectly delighted. Some one near, not so epicurean 

in taste, cried out, " Miss , you are not going to eat 

that are you?" "Isn't it Woodcock 1" ''Yes — but I 
wouldn't eat that thingT " Oh, you don't know what is 
good ; it is a regular game bird — highly prized in New 
York." 

Well, the upshot of the matter is this : the joke was 
carried farther than I intended. I purposed to have it nicely 
cooked, as only she could have it done, and have it brought 
upon the table, and then I would make an exposure. But 
it so happened that I was compelled to go into the coun- 
tr}^ that night, and did not get back until 10 o'clock next 
day. I had forgotten all about the joke, but when I 

saw Miss 's countenance it recalled tlie idea I had 

of Tarn O'Shanter's wife when she was "nursing her 
wrath to keep it warm." And didn't I catch it, hot and 
cold ? " To treat me so had,''' " I couldn't believe it of 

you." I asked an explanation " That Woodcock ! too 

bad, ugh ! — oop-oo-oop, arr-e ! — too bad." And when she 
looked up so thought I. The cream of the joke I missed 
by being absent from breakfast. She, Avith a sparing 
hand, proffered to help those at table. Only one Avould 
partake, and she couldn't swallow it. The epicurean lady 
ate it Yv'ith a decided gusto ; — rich, rare and spicy were 



QUAIL PHYSIOLOGY. 73 

her plaudits of the game bird, the peculiar game flavor, 
&c. But enough ; the joke was really carried farther 
than I intended, and I am sorry for it, as my fair friend 
cannot bear a game bird to this day. 

Friend H., you requested me to give you my views in 
relation to the power of Quail to withhold scent. With 
myself for a long time it has been a fixed fact, as also 
with most of our amateur sportsmen, I see the fact 
mentioned by Herbert, Skinner, Lewis, et al. Each one 
speaks of it as being a voluntary act of the bird; and if 
not voluntary, tliat they are aware of their possessing the 
power. I believe neither : I look upon the fact not as 
instinct, nor anything out of the common laws of nature. 
I account for it altogether by supposing that excessive 
terror has checked the usual secretions or effluvia that, in 
a state of quietude, is given out by the bird, by which the 
dog is enabled to scent them. If you look in Carpenter^s 
Human Physiology, you will find that sudden and exces- 
sive terror will immediately check the lacteal secretion, 
and this is not the only secretion that is checked by 
fright. Every one has heard of fright producing gray 
liairs. They say that they are conscious of the power or 
property, or they would not lie so close— allowing you 
almost to set foot upon them before moving. I think it is 
)wing to their excessive fright. Terror in the first place 
checks their secretions, and in the next prevents flight, as 
they feel as secure in one place as another. See how 
readily fright will confound the fawn, the hare, and other 
tj.mid animals, and some birds. I have even heard of 
birds being checked in their flight by the yelling of a 
large number of persons, underneath them ; — the birds 
would drop almost as if shot. Every schoolboy is familiar 
with the practice of surrounding the hare and then setting 
ap an unearthly yelling ; — the hare in most instances will 
become so confounded that it may be picked up by hand. 
4 



74 DOG AND GUN. 

It is the same fright that keeps the Quail under cover, 
although hunter and dog may be very near. 

It may be possessed not only by one bird, but a whole 
bevy may possess the power or property. I will mention 
an instance : I had spotted several bevies near our village. 
With one I always had great difficulty — scarcely ever 
obtaining more than one or two shots. When I would 
flush the bevy, the birds would rise wildly and fly to all 
points of the compass. Their motto seemed to be, " Every 
one for himself, and the devil take the hindmost." I have 
never before or since seen so wild a bevy. Even when I 
had closely marked a single bird, I rarely obtained a shot. 
At the time to which I allude, my dog pointed them at 
their usual haunt, and to my utter surprise they rose well 
together, and settled in a beautiful cover for sport, at a 
short distance. My friend and myself marked them well 
and closely. Not knowing the Quail as I now do, we 
immediately pushed after them, anticipating fine sport. 
We beat the ground again and again — circled the spot to 
see if they had left — we made our dog hunt very closely, 
but not a feather could we raise. My dog did not evince 
by his action that a single bird v^as near. We beat 
around the spot at least half an hour, wondering what 
could the matter be, and rather disposed to blame the dog. 
(And by-the-by, friend H., let me whisper this fact — 
there is not a better nose in Alabama, for Quail, than 
Roscoe's.) Thinking that we or the dog (one) must be mis- 
led, we were about giving them up, when one rose directly 
under me, and then whirr, whirr, they went all around us 
— the dog in the very midst, and he did not point ! How 
can it be accounted for, unless the secretions were checked 
by fright % To prove my views I will mention another 
case, wherein the same effect was produced by a fright 
from the hawk. Some sporting friends of mine were ap- 
proaching a field when they saw a hawk soaring with a 



EFFECTS OF FEAR ON THE QUAIL. 75 

Quail in its talons. They leisurely pursued their way 
through the field, where they were induced to rest a few 
moments — the dogs at the time at their heels. After 
resting for a short time, they were startled by the uprising 
of a bevy all around them and in their very midst. Now 
the effect of withholding scent was undoubtedly produced 
by the depredation of the hawk; it was of course not pro- 
duced by the sportsmen and dogs, as they had not been 
flushed. If it was a voluntary act on their part it was 
altogether superfluous to hold it from the hawk, who ob- 
tains his prey alone by sight. When physiology tells us 
that fear will in many instances, even with human beings, 
check secretions, it is not difficult on my part to believe 
the same cause will produce similar effects upon the 
Quail. 



CHAPTEK XI. 
PARTRIDaE SHOOTINQ. 

I AM greatly indebted to my friend, Samuel Swan, edi- 
tor of the Southern Military Gazette, for the use of the 
following spirited sporting articles, from the pen of the 
accomplished and versatile author of " Field Sports^ 
Mr. Herbert's descriptions have never been excelled ; no 
living literary artist equals him, in my opinion, in that 
sort of limning which is accomplished by a few dashing 
strokes. In " My First Day's Partridge Shooting," and 
** The Yorkshire Moors," he is fully himself. They were 
never in print before, having been written for Mr. Swan's 
Gazette, just as that periodical was discontinued by its 
proprietor in consequence of the large increase of his busi- 
ness, leaving him no leisure to attend to it. I present 
first : 

MY FIRST day's PARTRIDGE SHOOTING. 

At last I was eighteen years old. I had been in the sixth 
form at Eton more than six months ; had been promoted 
from round jackets to long-tailed blue coats, the height 
and front of the Etonian's ambition ; from a pony to a 
fifteen-hand thoroughbred hack — which I believed to be 
the best hunter in the island — and from my seat at my 
sister's governess's table to a knife and fork in the dining 
room ; and now I was to be promoted from shooting rab- 
bits, snipe, wild fowl, larks, and such other animals of the 
half-game order, to the dignity of a game certificate and 
a license to kill game in my own right throughout Eng- 
land. 

(T6) 



DIPLOMA DISAPPOINTMENTS. 77 

I was already more than a fair shot, for it had been 
agreed between myself and the governor that I should 
be entitled to claim a game certificate so soon as I could kill 
nine out of the first twelve skylarks that should get up before 
me — the sky-lark when he does not rise to sing flying 
low, very swiftly, close to the ground, by no means unlike 
a snipe, and quite as difficult to kill. 

This feat I had accomplished some three weeks before 
the first ; my certificate was bought ; my first shooting 
jacket built ; my gun cleaned for the tenth time within 
the last two days ; my shot-pouch and powder horn filled ; 
and I, filled full from head to foot with anticipation of dis- 
tinguishing myself before the e^es of the governor, went 
to bed, but not to sleep, on the night of the thirty-first of 
August. 

I was awake and on foot at day -break, and it seem- 
ed hours, nay years to me, before my father made his 
appearance, rigged- for the field, at about eight o'clock. 

"Well, to the field we went, in the home farm, and 
within five hundred yards of the house ; in a fine turnip 
field, knee deep among the broad green leaves, the dogs 
came to a point. I had made some trivial wager with the 
governor that I would bag my first bird, a dog-whip or 
whistle, or some such trifle ; but my heart was as much 
set to win as if a million had been at stake. 

Three young birds rose, two crossed the governor to 
the right, and both fell to his two barrels killed clean. 
My bird fell, likewise, but he was wing-tipped only, ran 
and was not retrieved. 

I had lost my wager, ^nd my heart was heavy — the 
governor chaffed me and laughed at me — I grew nervous — 
got out of sorts — blazed right and left at everything. I 
carried both barrels at full cock then; everybody did so 
in those days — missing it before it got five yards away — 
was quizzed and laughed at more and more, and came 



78 DOG AND GUN. 

within an ace of being destroyed and rendered worthless 
as a shot forever. 

Suddenly, in a desperate situation, I took a desperate 
resolve : I would never again, while I lived, cock a gun 
till the bird was on the wing at which I was about to fire. 
No sooner said than done. I let my gun down to the half- 
cock and proceeded. The next ten birds that rose I put 
up my gun to my shoulder without cocking it — pulled — 
no fire came, and I got quizzed more and more, and, at 
last, actually scolded, as if I were holding back my fire 
purposely, because I could not get what I considered a 
true aim. 

Then I was lectured on the beauties of a first sights 
and on the inutility of picking after my birds and on the 
danger of becoming a pottering shot ; all of which I knew, 
every iota, as well as my monitor. But not a word deigned 
I in reply, either in defence or in explanation. 

At last I got the hang of it. I cocked my gun as I 
raised it, discharged it as the butt struck my shoulder, and 
of course killed my bird. ^ killed thirteen birds, one 
after the other, in unbroken succession, four of them double 
shots. Then I missed one bird, killing its mate with my 
second barrel, and five more in succession ; then two 
misses and eight kills, each after each. 

At nightfall I had bagged twenty-seven birds out of 
twenty-nine shots, after missing some nineteen or twenty 
shots without a single kill in the morning. I have never 
done much better since. That morning made me all that 
I claim to be at this moment, a deliberately prompt shot. 
But you had better believe, gentle reader, that from that 
day forth, to this, I have never cocked my gun till I have 
seen my game fairly on wing or afoot ; and yet more, till 
I have let it go, as far as I intend that it shall go at all; 
and I find that I can kill as many snap shots as most 
men. Let those who will, carry their guns cocked. J 



PROMOTED TO THE MOORS. 79 

say let ihevi — so that they don't cany their hammers 
down on the nipples — it is all one to ine. If they do so, 
they don't shoot in my company nohow ; but for my own 
use, give me the gun at half-cock and deliberate promj^ti- 
tude ! 

THE YORKSHIRE MOORS. 

It is now well nigh thirty years since my first day on 
the Yorkshire moorlands. I was then some eighteen years 
of age, and in the sixth form at Eton. In the preceding 
autumn I had been promoted for the first time to a game 
certificate, and had waged war on the gray partridge, 
perdia cinerea, with such success as to kill my fifteen 
brace in one day's shooting, and to gain the repute of be- 
ing a most promising young shot ; for be it known I had 
practised first on hedge-sparrows, field-fares, skylarks 
and swallows, and afterward on English snipe, water fowl 
and moor hen, which are not included in the category of 
game or prohibited to the landless and unlicensed gunner, 
until I had acquired the trick of bringing my stock to my 
shoulder, my barrel on a level to the eye, and drawing 
my trigger-finger with a single motion, and that without 
either winking at the flash or shrinking from the recoil. 
In short, I was in a fair way to be as good as I was a 
keen shot, when few Eaton boys had a soul above a crick- 
et-ball or a boat race. 

But the moors ! the moors ! the glorious twelfth of 
August ! Hoc erat in votis ! This it was which was to 
constitute me a hona fide sportsman ; to make me the 
pride and envy of my classmates — my classmates ! nay, 
but of the country gentlemen, the crack shots, the brag 
artists of the south country preserves, to whom a well- 
stocked turnip-field or well-filled pheasant covert, was the 
noblest scene of their exploits with the gun. 

How eager were my days, how sleepless my nights, 



80 ' DOG AND GUN. 

as tliat day of days approached, which was in my 
own esteem to raise me to the level of a Caesar ! and 
when the missive was despatched to ask permission of the 
eccentric but kind-hearted mistress of Fontague's abbaye 
and unnumbered acres of " heath and whin and bare wild 
moor," how did my heart leap to the sound of the post- 
man's horn ! how did I strive to anticipate the future, and 
when the reply arrived in the affirmative, where was 
there to be found one so happy as I ? My gun cleaned 
and re-cleaned, locks taken apart and put together again, 
oiled and wiped dry and oiled again, till every one in the 
house was, or at least had good cause to be, utterly 
a-weary. 

And then my rig for the twelfth — methinks I can see 
it as it lay before me now, just from the hands of the 
most approved artist in St. James street — point device 
according to Gunter. The russet-purple shooting jacket 
of light velveteen, precisely the shade of the blooming 
heather ; the dun-colored tweed waistcoat and trousers, 
undistinguishable from the tints of the faded grass and 
ling ; the stout yet light and easy shoes ; the leather an- 
kle-gaiters ; the purple-cloth shooting cap, with a tuft of 
heather and withered fern in the band — all fashioned alike 
to excite the jealousy of the rival sportsman and to defy 
the most fastidious eye, while it should at the same time 
pass before the eyes of the vigilant and fearful moorcock 
without awakening his observation — that all spectators 
should exclaim, " Capital get up indeed !" " Devilish well 
made, and in good taste too ! not a bit overdone, like Aston's 
liveries there ! no one can say that for them !" 

At length the eve of the happy day arrived. The 
weather was in all respects propitious, and at daybreak 
on the eleventh we set forth, myself and the best and 
dearest of all earthly friends long since departed from 
this world of toil and trouble, in a light stanhope drawn 



DOGS THAT WERE DOGS. 81 

by an active horse, encumbered by no luggage beyond 
our gun-cases and the changes of rahnent necessary for 
our trip. 

Old Harry Lee, tlie sturdy veteran game-keeper, who 
taught " my young idea how to shoot," and to accompany 
whom on his rounds I have risen a hundred times from 
my bed at daybreak or earlier, when the sun rises at 
three in the morning, had set out two days previously, 
leading a stout Shetland poney laden with panniers, and 
taking with him four brace of as staunch and swift and beau- 
tiful dogs as ever dropped to shot, or stood staunch and 
still as death over a running bevy. There were Cynthia 
and Phebe, a pair of orange and white silky Irish setters, 
with large soft eyes and coal-black muzzles, feathered six 
inches deep on the legs and stern — Pierrot and Jason, two 
liver and white pointers, the former so lively a game- 
flnder that the best shot with Avhom I ever pulled a trig- 
ger was used to say that he " half believed Pierrot could 
make his own game whenever he was at a loss" — Charon 
and Pluto, a brace of black and white Russians, fleeced 
like Arctic bears, and with such a fell of matted wool hang- 
ing over their short bullet heads and grim faces, and almost 
quenching the light of their quick keen fiery eyes, that it 
was difficult to conceive how they could see daylight. 
They were the best retrievers I have ever yet shot over ; the 
staunchest, keenest, most indefatigable and indestructible 
of dogs. 

Charon was for years my own especial dog ; him I was 
allowed to take out of the kennel alone without a keeper 
to accompany me, Avhen I was, or was supposed to be, too 
young, too ignorant, and too impetuous to be trusted with 
any dog that could be damaged. " Even Frank," it used 
to be said, " could not spoil Charon !" and I believe theD — 1 
himself could not, had he tried it. 

He had been imperfectly broke, and if birds were killed, 



82 DOG AND GUN. 

he would run in and fetch them ; but even in his un- 
steadiness he was so staunch, and so unerring was his saga- 
city and instinct, that if a fresh bird la}^ in his route as he 
dashed in to fetch that which had fallen, he would inva- 
riably point it dead. I never knew him flush a single bird 
in his most impetuous rushes. 

If a covey was missed clean, he would drop sulkily to 
charge ; but he would invariably look round and stare in your 
face with a sort of sullen grunt, as who should say, " What 
do you mean by such work as that f If you mi.^sed 
three times in succession, menace and coaxing were alike 
unavailing. Home went Charon, and for that day was no 
more seen. 

More extraordinary yet, he could distinguish by the eye 
when a hare Mas wounded, when no man living would 
have suspected that the animal was hit ; and whereas if 
one went away cleanly missed he would charge like a rock ; 
the instant he perceived, how I cannot imagine, that it 
was carrying away a load, he would chase like a devil. 
But, as in the other instance, I never saw him chase a hare 
that he did not bring it home ; and he could no more have 
run down a fresh one with a twenty yards start, than I 
could run down an elk on an open prairie. 

The fourth brace were a pair of coal-black setters, 
Death and Dream, beautiful as night which they most re- 
sembled, without one white speck on their lustrous coats, 
perfectly broken, tractable as lambs, fleet as deer, yet full 
of fire and spirit, fearless and tireless, and less fleet only 
than the wind. 

Such Avas the governor's kennel ; and even as I never yet 
have seen such a shot or sportsman as he was, so never have 
I seen nor shall I see, so far as I expect, such a kennel of 
dogs, whether for staunchness, certainty, speed, or beauty. 

All day long we travelled through scenes of the rarest 
beauty, by the castled crags of Knaresborough, frowning 



PLEASANT ROAD Ax\D FARE. 83 

over the bright dark waters of the Nid, up the lovely vale 
of which lay our course to the moorlands — by the old forta- 
lice of E-ipley, where the lady Ingolby of that day re- 
ceived CromAvell, when he visited her at the head of his 
ironsides, with pistols stuck in her apron strin g — by Hamps- 
thwaite's rural homes, by Dacre pasture and the oak woods 
of Darley, across Pately bridge and up the brawling Nid 
unto the spot where Ram's ghyll pours his tributary tor- 
rent into the wider stream. 

Here, after a homely supper, rashers of bacon, new- 
laid eggs, short bread and home-brewed ale, to which fa- 
tigue had earned us eager appetites, we turned into the 
coarse clean sheets redolent of the bloomy heather on 
which they had been bleached, and lulled by the ceaseless 
brawling of the mountain brook which foamed down its 
gorge close beneath the window, I, for one, sank asleep so 
soon as my head touched the pillow, and dreamed of moor- 
cocks until a light flashed before my eyes, a hand was laid 
heavily upon my shoulder, and the old game-keeper's voice 
aroused me from my soft slumber. 

It was past three o'clock, and breakfast was ready in the 
parlor. The sun would be up before we could reach the 
moor, and the morning promised to be a fine one. I was 
on my feet in an instant, and my first day on the Yorkshire 
moors had begun — he who will, shall hereafter learn how it 
ended. 

THE YORKSHIRE MOORS — CONCLUDED. 

At length the long-wished-for moment had arrived. The 
breakfast was duly honored, the panniers packed with lunch- 
eon, to return as we hoped, packed with moor-fowl, and 
slung on the Shetland pony, were despatched, together 
with two brace of dogs, the bitches Cynthia and Phebe, 
for the morning's work, and the Russians for the afternoon, 



84 DOG Ai\D GUi\. 

under the care of the guide, to meet ns on the verge of 
the moors. 

It was not yet light when we started from the door of 
the little Inn, to scale the four miles of steep and continu- 
ous ascent, Avhich led by a road liker far to the gulley of a 
mountain torrent, than to au}^ path made by the hands of 
man, from the level of the beautiful bright river to the 
summit of the misty plateau which forms the base of the 
moors, the loftier hills rising above it in huge, rounded or 
square-topped masses, divided from each other, sometimes 
by wide plains of the richest heather, sometimes by mossy 
bogs, whence steal the rills which, gradually swelling into 
burns, as the larger brooks are termed, pour down through 
the ghylls or gorges which they cut for themselves through 
the peat, the gravel, nay ! even through the solid sand- 
stone, and become the feeding tributaries of the lovely 
rivers of the West Riding 

The first pale streaks of dawn stole up the east as we 
ascended, the clouds, few, fleecy, and far between, hung 
lightly here and there in the pure dark sky, from which 
all the stars had faded except Venus, who still showed her 
waning lamp near the horizon, for she was now the morn- 
ing star. As we reached the summit, where two dark, in- 
distinct shapes were awaiting us, of boy and pony, at the 
swing gate which gave access through the high dry stone 
wall, to the wild, bare moor, on which many of the smaller 
landholders of the ghylls and dales had right of pasturage 
for their black-faced sheep — in future the finest of mountain 
mutton — and black cattle in proportion to the number of 
acres in their respective holdings, though the lord or lady 
paramount of the manor only has the right of shooting, or 
deputizing persons to shoot over the range; the gray 
clouds changed their tints to amber, to rosy-red, to crimson, 
to flaming liquid gold, as the east gradually flushed bright- 
er and brighter, until at length the great sun rushed up 



PANORAMA OF THE MOORS. 86 

like an orb of burnished gold, through the thin mist on 
the mountain heads, and, in an instant it was perfect 
day. 

What a scene, what a panorama was there ; — beneath and 
behind us the long retiring valley of the Nid, winding 
away in a far perspective of hanghig woods, ri<;li emerald 
pastures, crofts bordered with their shadowy sycamores, 
and village roofs and humble chapels peeping out between, 
until lost in the blue mists of distance. 

Before us unnumbered leagues of barrenness and deso- 
lation, blue mountain beyond blue mountain, rolling away 
tii^ vast earth billows of that moorland sea, without a spot 
of culture, an oasis of fertility, to the borders of Scotland, 
fifty leagues distance to the north-westward. 

Around us knolls, hillocks, hummocks, hills, some round, 
some sugarloaf, some rock-ribbed and cr;;g-crested ; deep 
treacherous morasses tempting the foot of the unwary 
visitor by their exquisite smoothness, and the unrivalled 
richness of their emerald verdure ; deep, abrupt, broken 
gorges and ravines, with clear brooks brawling along their 
bottoms, but all pathless, seemingly untrodden of man, 
cursed, one would say, with irredeemable barrenness, and 
inhabited only by the few titlarks which faintly hailed the 
rising sun with hymns, scarcely audible amid those vast 
solitudes, and the snipes and curlews which rose now and 
then, screaming dissonantly, from the bogs and peat-holes, 
whence the turf had been cut for fuel, for we had not as 
yet reached the choicer portion of the moor, haunted alike 
by the blackfaced quadrupeds, and the red-grouse allured 
ever to the same vicinity by the same succulent food on 
which their excellence depends — the young sprouts of the 
tenderest short heather, springing fresh from places 
over which the fire has run in the latest autumn of the 
past year. Nevertheless, with all the desolation, there 
was a sort of peculiar wild beauty, arising for the most 



8G I'U*^ A\D GU\. 

part from the singular and variegated hues of the surface ; 
where the young heather was in bloom the whole super- 
fices of hundreds and hundreds of acres was glowing with 
the most gorgeous hues of amythyst, garnet, and rubies ; 
where the dry stalks and sere leaves of the later and older 
growth prevailed, all was deep tawney russet ; where the 
fire had recently passed all was black as charred stumps and 
the very peat soil, scorched to the bottom, could make it — 
then again, there were patches of green furze with their 
golden blossoms, and tracts of dark green, rushy, rank 
grass, and gleams of the brightest emerald around the well- 
heads, and over all the treacherous morasses. 

But now Ave had reached our opening ground, the boy 
with the pony and the second brace of dogs was ordered 
to the rear, with instructions to meet us by the side of a 
certain gray rock, and spring-head, on the northern edge 
of Kettletang, a huge, jjl^^ff-headed hill, overtopping all 
his neighbors, at noon, when we should be there to refresh 
the inner man, and take up the fresh dogs for the af- 
ternoon. 

This arranged, to work we went. The ground was along 
swell of gentle hillocks, facing the morning and sun, and 
sloping gently down to the south-eastward. It was cover- 
ed with short purple heather, in full bloom, with here and 
there a patch of soft, green grass, and now and then a 
well-head, with a small silvery runnel oozing from it, and 
showing by the greener and lighter hues of the ling and 
grass around its course, how vivifying and beneficial were 
its influences. ' 

It was precisely one of those ranges which the young 
broods love in the early morning, at the beginning of the 
season, and, in fact, the fleet bitches had not ranged five 
hundred yards, which they did at full speed, heads up and 
sterns down, crossing each other at every five hundred 
yards distance, turning unbidden, and quartering their 



STEADY ! CAREFUL ! 87 

ground beautifully, before Cynthia came on her game so 
suddenly that she literally threw a somersault as she set 
the birds, turning herself completely over, so that her stern 
was toward the brood, and that she pointed them over her 
shoulder. Phebe backed her at a quarter of a mile, as 
steadily as if she had been cast in bronze or carved in 
marble. 

"Steady now, Frank !" said the Grovernor — " They are 
close under her nose." 

Gingerly, but firmly we advanced, finger-nail on the trig- 
ger-guard, thumb on the hammer, till we Avere within six 
paces of the bitch ; she was trembling with intense anxiety, 
her eyes gleaming like coals of fire, her brows corrugated, 
the slaver on her lip. 

"Careful, Frank, careful !" said the Governor, " I fancy 
it will prove a brood of squeakers, too young to kill — 
don't shoot the old hen, if it be so." 

But at the instant, as he spoke, being to the right hand 
of me, the old cock rose clapping his wings in defiance, 
and uttering a loud crow crossed me to the leftward. He 
was a splendid fellow. He rose so close that the bare 
scarlet granulated spots about his eyes, and his angrily 
erected crest were clearly visible, as well as the golden 
and deep red hackles on his neck, and the beautifully pied 
plumage of his brown, red, and black-barred back and wing 
coverts, his breast was partly turned toward me, and it 
was black as night. He proved afterward to be a three 
year old bird, and weighed but a few ounces short of four 
pounds weight, — for I was steady, let him get fifteen yards 
away, then raised my gun deliberately, drew trigger as 
the butt touched my shoulder — a stream of feathers drifted 
down wind, and with a heavy thud the noble cock fell 
dead among the short flowery heather. 

Nothing rose at the report, and it Avas not till after 
much kicking and beating of the heather, that the old hen 



88 DOG AND GUN. 

rose with seventeen squeakers, not bigger than six-weeks 
chickens. 

Them, of course, Ave bade go their way rejoicing, as we 
did likewise, specially I — for had I not been cool, even by 
the Governor's ipse di.rif, and killed my first heath-cock 
fairly ? 

Our next find was three old bachelors, as they are termed 
by the initiated, old cock birds, namely, which, not having 
paired or bred the last year, band together and become 
great pests to the breeders, beating off the young males, 
and disturbing the amorous couples. 

They rose wild, at long-range — but we sent two snap 
shots" after them, and two fell, — the Governor's killed dead, 
mine wingtipped, but the bitches retrieved him cleverly 
after a mile's roading. The third rise was a well grown 
brood of twelve, with their parents, which also got up shy 
and distant, the heather being as yet too wet with dew to 
allow their lying hard. Yet I knocked one over, my 
father killing two — the old cock, a prodigiously long shot, 
with his second barrel. 

But as the day improved, and the sun grew warmer, 
the birds lay better, and I did my work creditably, to my 
own satisfaction, and won moderate praise from the Gov- 
ernor, and huge kudos from my preceptor in the noble art 
of collineation, as poor Cypress, Jr., was wont to call it, old 
Harr}^ Lee. 

When we counted heads at luncheon I was only two 
brace and a half behind my companion, who, as I said, was 
the best shot, walker and sportsman, it ever was my lot 
to meet, having bagged my thirteen brace and a half, six 
brace of them clever double shots, to his sixteen brace. 

In the afternoon, with the fresh dogs, though I shot as 
well, or, considering the change in the weather and state 
of the game, perhaps better than before luncheon, I did 
not fare so well. 



THE day's proceeds. 89 

The day had become overcast, the wind had got up, the 
grouse had packed, and rose very wild and flew like hawks 
. — still, when the sun set, and we knocked off work, I had 
shot eleven brace more, three golden plover, and a curlew 
— but the Governor, who always shot the best when the 
shooting was the hardest, had bagged seventeen brace 
more of grouse, a hare, and a brace of mallards, which 
sprung unexpectedly from a peat bog. 

On the whole I had scored tAventy-four and a half brace 
of moor-game, fifty-three head of game in all, against his 
thirty-three brace of grouse, and total of sixty-nine head 
• — pretty well that for a green hand in his first season, 
shooting beside one of the best guns in the three king- 
doms. 

There were twenty-nine guns on the moor that morn- 
ing, and the Grovernor beat the two best, with fourteen 
brace to spare. 

Was not I a proud and a happy man that night, when 
after quaffing a half gallon of new milk, with a modicum^ 
of Jamaica in it — was too tired to eat supper — I plunged 
into the thyme-scented sheets, and was asleep before my 
head was well on the pillow. 



CHAPTER XII. • 

TREATMENT OF THE DISTEMPER. 

Since the foregoing pages of this little work were pre- 
pared, a friend has put us in possession of the following 
accurate description of the great enemy of the canine 
race — the Distemper. It was written years ago, by the 
great Jenner, and is, of course, an admirable description 
of the disease. 

Every man has his own cure for the Distemper ; the 
country is full of " infallible recipes." The chief point is 
to know whether or not the animal really has the disease. 
If that is early discovered, a mild purgative every other 
day, light diet, and a clean, comfortable kennel will pro- 
bably cure him. 

The following is the Jenner article : 

DISTEMPER IN DOGS. 

That disease among dogs which has familiarly been 
called "the Distemper," has not hitherto, I believe, been 
much noticed by medical men. My situation in the coun- 
try favoring my Avishes to make some observations on this 
singular malady, I availed myself of it during several 
successive years, among a large number of fox hounds be- 
longing to the Earl of Berkeley ; and from observing how 
frequently it has been confounded with hydrophobia, I 
am induced to lay the result of my inquiries before the 
Medical and Chirurgical Society. It may be difficult, 
perhaps, precisely to ascertain the period of its first ap- 

90 



THE DISTEMPER. • 91 

pearance in Britain. In this and the neighboring counties, 
I have not been able to trace it back much beyond the 
middle of the last century ; but it has since spread uni- 
versally. I knew a gentleman who, about forty-five years 
ago, destroyed the greater part of his hounds, from sup- 
posing them mad, Avhen the distemper first broke out 
among them ; so little was it then known by those most 
conversant with dogs. On the continent, I find it has 
been known for a much longer period. It is as contagious, 
among dogs as the small-pox, measles, or scarlet fever 
among the human species ; and the contagious miasmata, 
like those arising from the diseases just mentioned, retain 
their infectious properties a long time after separation from 
the distempered animal. Young hounds, for example, 
brought in a state of health into a kennel where others 
have gone through the distemper, seldom escape it. I 
have endeavored to destroy the contagion, by ordering 
every part of the kennel to be carefully washed with 
water, then Avhite washed, and finally to be repeatedly 
fumigated with the vapor of marine acid ; but without 
any good result. 

The dogs generally sicken early in the second week 
after exposure to the contagion. It is more commonly a 
violent disease than otherwise, and cuts off, at least, one 
in the three that are attacked by it. It commences with 
inflammation of the substance of the lungs, and generally 
of the mucous membrane of the bronchise. The inflam- 
mation at the same time seizes on the membranes of the 
nostrils, &nd those lining the bones of the nose ; particu- 
larly the nasal portion of the ethmoid bone. These mem- 
branes are often inflamed to such a degree, as to cause 
extravasation of blood, which I have observed coagulated 
on their surface. The breathing is short and quick, and 
the breath is often fetid. The teeth are covered with 
dark-looking mucus. There is frequently a vomiting of a 



92 ■ DOG AND GUN. 

glary fluid. The dog conimoiily refuses food, but his 
thirst seems insatiable, and nothing seems to cbeer him 
like the sight of water. The bowels, thougli generally 
constipated as the disease advances, are frequently affected 
with the diarrhoea at its commencement. The eyes are 
inflamed ; and the sight is often obscured by mucus secre- 
ted from the eye-lids, or by opacity of the cornea. The. 
brain is often affected as early as the second day after the 
attack. The animal becomes stupid, and his general 
habits are changed. In this state, if not prevented by 
loss of strength, he sometimes wanders from his home. 
He is frequently endeavoring to expel, by forcible expir- 
ations, the mucus from the trachea and fauces, with a 
peculiar rattling noise. His jaws are generally smeared 
with it, and it sometimes flows out in a frothy state, from 
his frequent champing. During the progress of the dis- 
ease, especially in its advanced stages, he is disposed to 
bite and gnaw anything within his reach. He has some- 
times epileptic fits, or quick succession of general, though 
slight convulsive spasms of the muscles. 

If the dog survives, this affection of the muscles con- 
tinues through life. He is often attacked with fits of a 
different description. He first staggers, then tumbles, 
rolls, cries as if whipped, and tears up the ground with 
his teeth and fore feet. He then lies down senseless and 
exhausted. On recovering he gets up, moves his tail, 
looks placid, comes to a whistle, and appears in every 
respect much better than before the attack. The eyes, 
during this parox3'^sm, look bright, and unless previously 
rendered dim by mucus, or opacity of the cornea, seem as 
if they were starting from the sockets. He becomes ema- 
ciated, and totters from feebleness in attempting to walk, 
or from a partial paralysis of the hind legs. In this state, 
he sometimes lingers on until the third or fourth week, and 
then either begins to show signs of returning health (which 



DESCRIPTION OF THE DISEASE. 93 

seldom happens when the symptoms have continued with 
this degree of violence) or expires. During convalescence, 
he has sometimes, though rarely, profuse haemorrhafge from 
the nose. When the inflammation of the lungs is very 
severe, he frequently dies on the third day. I knew one 
instance of a dog's dying within twenty-four hours after 
the seizure, and in that short space of time the greater 
portion of the lungs was, from exudation, converted into 
a substance nearly as solid as the liver of a sound animal. 
In this case, the liver itself was considerably inflamed, 
and the eyes and flesh universally were tinged with yel- 
low, though I did not observe anything obstructing the 
biliary du ts. In other instances, I have also observed 
the eyes looking yellow. 

The above is a description of the disease in its severest 
form; but in this, as in the diseases of the human body, 
there is every gradation in its violence. There is also 
another affinity to some human diseases, viz., that the ani- 
mal which has once gone through it, very rarely meets 
with a second attack. Fortunately, this distemper is not 
communicable to man. Neither the efiluvia from the dis- 
eased dog, nor the bite, has proved in any instance infec- 
tious; but as it has often been confounded with canine 
madness, as I have before observed, it is to be wished that 
it were more generally understood ; for those who are 
bitten by a dog in this state, are sometimes thrown into 
such perturbation, that hydrophobic symptoms have actu- 
ally arisen from the workings of the imagination. Mr. 
John Hunter used to speak of a case somewhat of this 
description in his lectures.* Having never, to a certainty, 

* A gentleman who received a severe bite from a dog, soon after 
fancied the animal was mad. He felt a horror at the sight of liquids, 
and was actually convulsed on attempting to swallow them. So un- 
controllable were his prepossessions, that Mr. Hunter conceived that 
he would have died, had not the dog which inflicted the wound been 



94 DOO AND GUN. 

seen a dog with hydrophobia, I am of course unable to lay 
down a positive criterion for distinguishing between that 
disease and the distemper, in the precise way I could 
wish ; but if the facts have been correctly stated, that in 
hydrophobia the eye of the dog has more than ordinary 
vivacity in it, and, as the term implies, he refuses to take 
water, and shudders even at the sight of it, while in the 
distemper he looks dull and stupid, is always seeking after 
water, and never satisfied with what he drinks, there can 
be no loss for a ready discriminating line between the two 
diseases. 

March 21, 1809- 

fortunately found and brought into his room in perfect health. This 
soon restored his mind to a state of tranquillity. Thesight of water 
no longer affected hiai, and he quickly recovered. 



CHAPTEK XIII. 

NIPE SHOOTING IN FLORIDA. 
BY COR DE CHASSE. 

As this little volume was getting ready for the press, 
the foilo\Yiiig interesting and graphic paper, on Snipe 
Shooting in Florida ^ reached me from that accomplished 
gentleman and crack shot, Col. Wm. T. Stockton, known 
to the readers of the N. Y. Spirit of the Times as " Cor 
DE Chasse :" 

*' QuixcY, Fla., January 26th, 1856. 

*' My Dear Hooper : — I am only at home a few days, 
and I am sure you will forgive me for my seeming neglect, 
when I tell you that I was absent from home for nearly 
three months, and had so much to say to wife and bairns 
on my return. But somewhat to my surprise, I did find 
your note requiring * that article.' Since I have an- 
nounced that it was from the veritable ' Jones,' I have 
become a man of more note. True, I was Intendant of 
the town, and Captain of the Quincy Light Horse, but 
the splendor of even those brilliant titles paled before the 
new one, of a correspondent of ' the author of Simon 
Suggs,' and * Editor of Montgomery Mail.' But, really, 
your request is so flattering, you have the gift, as Pliny 
has it, (I'll quote him again shortly) ' adornare verbis, 
benefacfa,' that though little in the mood (though I have 
been much in the 7niid of late), I must make the effort— 

(95) 



96 DOG AND GUN. 

I labor under the difficulty of not knowing what sort of 
an article you want, or to what use you wish to put it. 
If it don't suit, why fires are never far off this cold 
weather.'' 



" But I promised to tell you something of our Snipe 
shooting here in Florida, and if other kinds of sport be- 
come mingled with it, it is because, from the very nature 
of the shooting ground it follows as a consequence. I do 
not propose to give you a scientific dissertation on the bird 
in question, for Audubon, Wilson, Frank Forester, &c., 
have given us all that can be wished. I will simply 
sketch the proceedings of a friend and myself, during a 
couple of days in the beginning of December before last. 
P. and Cor have hunted the deer and worked their point- 
ers together for some fifteen years. * Cor,' said P., * let 
us have our trip to Lake Jackson, and see if ducks and 
snipe are as numerous as heretofore ; the cold weather, I 
am sure, has brought in the ducks, and in this bright sun- 
shine the snipe will lie like quail.' 

" ' Agreed, we'll start to-morroAV at dawn ; the ponies 
will make a capital team on the road; we'll take saddles 
with us, and use them in going from camp to the shooting- 
ground and back. Sam will do the needful for the horses 
and the camp, for he has been with us so often, he has all 
the wrinkles from a venison steak up to a roasted snipe.' 

** The next morning as the grey showed itself in the 
East, we were on the road. The hunting wagon was 
well arranged. The mess-chest supplied with all we 
could require (I am afraid to go into particulars since 
the 'Major' came out in ' the Spirit' with his tirade against 
demijohns), forming the seat of the driver Sam, who 
handled the gallant ponies, matched, in action, though 
awfully diverse in color, as if to the * manner born * while 



PARADISE OF THE SNIPE-SHOOTER. 97 

Don and Donis * cliarged' under our seat in the after part 
of the wagon." 

*' * Shall we reconsider the motion to * camp' and go to 
the Governor's V asked Cor. * Oh ! let's camp by all 
means ; as we shall be so much in the mud and water, 
there will be less of restraint on us. True, the Governor 
will not forgive us, but my voice is for a camp at Shep- 
ajd's old Sugar Mill ; there we will find a roof to cover us, 
and it will be hard if the old timbers don't furnish us fuel.' " 

*' Two hours of time, and the quick moving ponies, 
placed us across Little E,iver and the Ocklockonee, and 
the waters of Lake Jackson were before us. And, now, 
let me sketch this paradise of the snipe-shooter. It was 
originally some twelve miles in length, by from one to 
two in breadth, and its bright waters shone clear in the 
sunlight, from highland to highland, but in the progress 
of the age, whether from new subterranean outlets effected, 
which discharge the waters more rapidly, or from the 
greater evaporation, arising from the clearing up of its 
shores, certain it is, that with the exception of a few 
eccentric changes, its level has been lowering, and in 
localities where formerly we had capital trout-fishing in 
six feet water, at present large crops of the Indian corn 
are produced, subject of course to the accident of an 
occasional overflow, in which case, if the corn is ripened, 
instead of the wagon drawn by patient oxen, boats worked 
by * darkies' in a hurry, become the medium of trans- 
portation of the crop to the crib. It is on these flats we 
seek the snipe; if a rise has taken place in the Lake, 
followed by a withdrawal of the waters, the tufts of grass 
among the corn form capital cover for the * Scolopaces,' 
but in many places, Avhen the land has not been brought 
into cultivation, a kind of marsh grass springs up, in which 
the game will lie to a dog as well as sportsmen can wish. 
But you must bear in mind that these same shooting- 



98 UOt.5 AM) CLN. 

grounds afford full feed to tlie Brent, Black duck, Mallard, 
Grey duck, Teal, et id omne gemis. The highlands around 
the lake are crowned Avith handsome residences, and the 
youthful sportsman may almost hope that his skill is 
looked upon and admired by ladies fair, even should they 
fail to recognise him on account of the sepia tinge he may 
have acquired from a plunge into an alligator bed, or some 
similar " causa teterrima helli,'' anglice, going almost waist 
deep into a mud hole. 

" The deserted sugar-house has been reached, the ponies 
rubbed down, and after a light feed, saddled for our use ; 
full directions for the arrangements of the camp given, 
and Don and Donis, with wistful faces, are begging us to 
be off. Hardly had we gone fifty paces when several 
snipe rose wild, with the old familiar ' scape, scape.' Two 
of them doubled back, high in air, and though going 
down wind like bullets, were handsomely nailed by Cor 
and his friend, much to the astonishment of a passing 
countryman, whose wonder found vent in the words 'I 
tell you r as the birds were carefully retrieved by the 
well trained dogs. ' Let's try the point next the Gover- 
nor's.' We found it in just the right order. The grass 
was some six inches high, affording an excellent cover for 
our game, w^iile the rich black loam, though affording suf- 
ficiently good footing for the sportsman, was all that the 
most difficult snipe could desire in the way of feeding- 
ground. You may imagine the prospect of our sport 
when I tell you, that on this point there were about fifty 
acres, almost identical in character, and we knew of sundry 
other similar places. Pity 'tis that we cannot dwell (as in 
deer-hunting, on the music of the pack, the turns and shifts 
of the game, as hill and valley echo with the cry) on the 
gallant action of the pointers — there is no time. They 
found almost at the same moment. ' You see to Donis, 
I'll go to Don.' Before I could reach my dog I saw 



FINE SPORT. 99 

featliers floating on the wind, while the reports of P's 
barrels reached my ear, ' Scape,' and a snipe rose almost 
from under my feet, and was fairly missed from the un- 
sportsmanlike flurry in which I fired. Still the good dog 
held his point. The load was quickly replaced. This 
time there Avas no hurry, and as three or four snipe rose 
within ten feet of Don's nose, two were easily cut down. 
For an hour the sport Avas fine — never did snipe lie so 
close ; hardly could we walk them up — occasionally, the 
warning cry * mark duck,' ' mark brent,' • up lake' or 
■' down' would be given, and shooters and dogs crouch low, 
and reasonably close shots be obtained. In spite of num- 
ber seven shot (light missies for heavy gamej at intervals, 
a brent would come wizzing through the air Avith a broken 
wing, or a mallard strike the soft ground with a ' thud' 
right grateful to the ear. (Do not be critical on our 
number seven shot ; Ave find them small enough for isnipe, 
and they will kill a duck). But all this Avas the poetry 
of our Avork. Soon the snipe fmnd the open too uncom- 
fortable and took refuge in bushy thickets which skirted a 
portion of the lake, the shrubs rising to a height of from 
six to ten feet. Here there Avas no grass, and nothing but 
the excellence of our dogs enabled us to accomplish any- 
thing. The birds rose Avild, and snap-shots Avere all the 
fashion, and at least one-half the time the dogs kneAV 
better than the men Avhether the bird Avas killed or missed. 
But Avithout even the effort at a boast, Avell did the 'Mul- 
lin' in the hands of Cor, and the English gun in those of 
his friend, do their duty — of course, at intervals the sports- 
men Avould meet and a few minutes halt be made to rest 
and compare notes. * Do you see, across the lake, that 
little cove,' said Cor, ' where that fine live oak and the 
low pines shade the very bank ? There, last winter, that 
party of our young friends made their first camp on the 
lake. As an old hand, I received a pressing invitation to 



100 DOG AND GUN. 

join them at some period of the week of their sojourn. 
On the morning after they reached camp, business called 
me within a few miles of them, I thonght I would drop in 
and see what they had done. The party had just come in 
to lunch, and as they caught sight of me a shout was raised, 
and they advanced to meet me. Among them was 'the 
General.' " What sport ?" " Pretty fair !" but I could 
remark an appearance of elation in them all, though most 
marked, perhaps, in " the General," and so quietly waited 
for the denouement. A surprise for me was evidently pre- 
paring. The General's military step assumed a prouder 
air, as he strode beside my horse ; a scientific wheel was 
accomplished around the tent, by which the game was 
suddenly made visible. "What do you think of that T' 
triumphantly asked the General. " By Jupiter, P," con- 
tinued Cor, if they didn't have twenty-three Blue Peters 
laid out side by side, and not one single other bird ! 
Commanding my countenance, I inquired " how it had 
been done ?" *' Oh ! all military science ! it will tell ! I 
discovered the flock in the cove there, at daylight, arranged 
the hunters at once, an ambuscade was formed surround- 
ing the cove, and at the signal, the whole battalion, I 
should say, partly fired; only three escaped ! as we shall be 
here several days yet, and it will not do to risk their spoil- 
ing, what had Ave best do Avith them 1' I could see that 
a misgiving was creeping over the whole of them which 
was fully confirmed by my reply, 'Hide them, as soon as 
possible, lest some sportsman should pass this way.' There 
were no more Blue Peters killed on that hunt — (The blue 
Peter, with its half-webbed feet, its chicken-like bill, its 
strong odor, and its absolute tameness, is ahvays spared 
by the duck-shooter). 'But,' Cor went on, 'Iioay splend- 
idly our dogs have behaved. I always knew that Don 
was the best dog I ever hunted over, but I now believe 
Donis is the' best I ever saw,' *Donis understands you 



'MARK DUCK? LAKEWARDS !' 101 

evidently,' returned P., ' and is expressing his thanks, by 
that Avag of his tail; we have sent the remnant of the 
snipe, for the most "^art, back to the open ground, let us 
have another turn at them and then we must change our 
^hot for the evening flight of the ducks,' and well did man 
and dog and gun do their w(.rk. The sport was so good, 
the birds lay so well, the ground so open, that shooting 
fully in sight of each other, we did not dare to miss. 
There was no need to profit by the peculiarities of the 
game, as derived from Frank Foresters valued information. 
The shooting was better up wind than down, as it gave 
the dogs a better chance. Sunday visits had been paid to 
the game-bags, on the ponies, but our pockets were again 
becoming onerous. It was now sundown and we hurried 
to them once more, emptied pockets, and changed shot, 
Cor adopting No. 4, while P. preferred No. 6, and sup- 
ported his judgment by saying ' we'll catch the mallard 
coming in to feed, and there will be few long shots.' We 
took stands on opposite sides of an ann of the Lak, about 
seventy-five yards wide, which expanded into a bay, filled 
with water-grasses, lily-pads, &c. — a portion of a field of 
corn had been submerged, 'also, offering gi'eat temptation 
to the green heads and their mates. By the time, we 
were safely ensconced in the tall grass, with the dogs 
couching near us, P. sang out 'mark ducks — lakewards!' 
and from that time forward, we had enough to keep us busy. 
"Night closed in, but still the flashes of our guns at 
intervals lighted up the grassy Avaters, while the respon- 
sive 'plash' told that, even in that uncertain light, we 
were doing execution. 'Up rose the yellow moon,' and 
by her beams the shooting still went on. Of course, there 
were no long shots even attempted ; but so unsuspiciously 
did the mallard come in, that the firing was well-sustained. 
In the long, coarse rushes, the saw-grass, the lily-pads, and 
the cold water, our thin-skinned pointers of course failed to 



102 DOG AND GUN. 

retrieve many of tlie birds ; but when, after nearly two 
hours of the moonlight shooting, we gave it up, tired and 
chilled, the dogs shivering, and the guns foul, we each had 
as many as we could well carry to our horses. Securing 
our game to the saddles, we hurried to camp. Sam had 
managed admirably ; a brilliant fire threw its broad glare 
over the ruiiis; by propping a shed, a safe shelter was 
provided for our horses ; a quantity of fennel had been 
gathered, and with the blankets spread over it, an easy 
and fragrant bed was ready for us. But now * spirits 
were called from the vasty deep ' — (aye, and they came, 
too) — of the demijohn, much needed, believe me, after that 
night's exposure in the marsh, with the ice forming in the 
still pools. Wet clothes and boots were exchanged for 
dry, and things were more comfortable — nunc edendum. 
In the excitement of the sport, we had forgotten that 
breakfast had been had before day, and that nothing had 
been eaten in the interval. The ham and chicken were 
duly paraded, but Cor was bound to have some of the 
* scapers ' cooked en 2^<ypil^otej sundry stationery having 
been provided with a view to this important matter. Half 
a dozen snipe were duly plucked by Sam, while the ex- 
change of wet clothes for dry was being made ; and with 
all due deference to Frank Forester, a modicum of butter, 
salt, and pepper teas placed within each before they were 
encased in the virgin-white costume, which duly encircled 
them before they were consigned to — ashes. The ten 
minutes were carefully noted, the plates judiciously heated, 
the toast anxiously waited, Avhile the operation proceeded 
under the skilful ministry of Sam (a ministry about to 
become general, I trust.) Those ten minutes gave us 
time to count our game, for the spirit of rivalry still main- 
tained. ' How many snipe, Cor V * Wait till I get 

through sixty-eight.' * Xou have beaten me; I have 

only fifty-six— but I expected it would be so. How about 



A SMPB SUPPER. 103 

ducks ]' Cor counted out twenty-tliree ducks and three 
brent. It was now P.'S turn. * Hold on ! twenty-six, 
twenty-seven, twenty-eiglit, twenty-nine, and all told, and 
two brent.' • That makes a grand total for the day, after 
the twenty miles' ride, of one hundred and twenty-four 
snipe, fifty-two ducks, and five brent ! What a glorious 
show they make ! We drink to Lake Jackson and the 
glorious sport we have had T * Snipe ready, sar,' reported 
Sam, as he placed the long-bills on the impromptu table. 
' Delmonico ' was nowhere; not an odor or aroma lost ! Ye 
gods ! did you ever eat snipe, cooked in camp en papillote ? 
Never, I am sure, or ambrosia would not have been heard 
of! As we puffed the ^c»5^-c6E?i<2/ cigar, our conversation 
naturally turned on our game and its habits. * You were 
not with the Doctor and myself last spring,' remarked Cor, 
♦ when the snipe acted so singularly, on that piece of wet 
land in the Stephens' branch. I presume few sportsmen 
can say what we can. There are but very few I would 
even ask to believe me. We shot the English snipe, the 
veritable scolopax tvilsonii, while sitting in tops of trees, 
an hundred feet in air ! Think of that. Master Brooks. 
While out quail-shooting, we found about a dozen snipe 
in this place. They were wild as deer; nor dog nor 
sportsman could approach them. After flushing them 
once or twice, without getting a shot, away they all went, 
as if about to emigrate finally. Higher and higher they 
whirled in air, till the eye could scarcely follow them. 
This continued for some six or eight minutes, when back 
they came, apparently in as much of a hurry as Avhen 
they left. Three or four came to the ground as usual; but 
imagine our surprise when M^e saw the rest lighting in the 
tops of tall trees. We waived all sporting rules, to be 
able to say that we had killed snipe thus.' The cigars 
were finished. * One smile,' said P., * for a night-cap, and 
then to bed ; we must be out by day-break, to pick up the 



104 DOG AND GUN. 

ducks we lost to-niglit, or the hawks will be before us.' 
So we turned in, but not for long. P. had forgotten that 
two or three strong smiles, indulged in with an empty 
stomach, might result in something serious. A peculiar 
sound disturbed the quiet of the camp. It was evidently 
a throe (throw ?) of nature. * What's the matter V * Sick,' 

gasped P. * What can be the cause V ' Those d d 

snipe !' Cor subsided among the blankets. All that sym- 
pathy could do was to control the risibles. And for a 
while he listened to the quack-qua-ack, quack, quack, of 
the mallard on the lake, and the cry of the brent as they 
passed overhead. Even the 'scape' of the snipe came 
sharply through the deep stillness of night. These sounds 
mingling with his dreams, made his night a restless one, 
for the triggers would creep, and the hammers Avould not 
fall. ' Turn out Cor,' (he was whistling the reveille) * 1 
have recovered from those snipe, and we must go and see 
about the ducks our dogs failed to retrieve. Let's have a 
cup of coffee and be off.' The dogs were fed with some 
warm corn-bread, to comfort them in the cold work to be 
done ; and it was cold work, breaking the scale of ice on 
the grassy bay, as the sportsmen found it, for they had to 
take water freely to encourage the dogs. 

*' Right gallantly did the pointers perform service only 
fit for the rough-haired Newfoundland. Seventeen more 
ducks were recovered by them, though in some cases the 
hawks disputed the property, quite sharply. Back to 
camp, to breakfast, and the snipe served as before, were 
followed by no such dire results, as on the previous night. 
* We have all the game Ave want,' suggested P. for our- 
selves and friends, to continue is murder; let's go home.' 
' The sun has come out bright and warm,' interposed 
Cor, * I think the trout will rjse— I have with me, the 
Whitehall spinning squid, and if you will paddle me, I'll 
ensure a Catholic Friday dinner in Quincy.' 'All right, 



FIXE FISHING. 105 

there's a skiff at the landing, which, with a little bailing, 
will suit our purpose." " I done found a fishing pole" put 
in, Sam. Instead of using an hundred yards of line, as the 
inventor of the artificial bait contemplated, rod, we, owing 
to the grassy water of the lake, limited our aspirations to 
eighteen inches of a stout cord, which secured to the end 
of the rod, enabled us to play the glancing bait, in front 
of the boat — at first, the fates were unpropitious, but as 
the sun grew warmer, a change came over the waters — a 
rush, a flash, and a three pound trout lay in the bottom of 
the skiff, and now the sport became most exciting. Some- 
tiijies the rush was made from the depths below, and all 
the previous notice given was the dash so vigorously made, 
that the pearly drops fell in board ; at others, as some 
cunning old fellow, hidden near the surface, under a lily- 
pad, and anxious for his breakfast, dashed to secure the 
illusive bait (he found it, not *'vox" but "hooks et 
praeterea nihil,") the water would swell for a length of 
perhaps twenty feet. Talk of your Salmon-fishing at the 
rate of one a day ! one hour of that incessant rush, dash, 
flash, splash, was worth an age of fly-whipping. The 
weights ran from one to eight or ten pounds. (Please in- 
duce some icthyologist to tell us the true name of this fish. 
I will furnish drawings and count the fins and fin-spines^ 
for any one who will enlighten us. Black perch, I call 
them, when playing scientific.) " And now for a full count of 
the results," said P. *'One hundred and twenty-four snipe, 
sixty-nine ducks, five brent and twenty-eight trout which 
Mall weio-h over one hundred pounds ! when this sport is 
exceeded, *' may we be there to see!" Sam, put to the 
ponies — while we smile once n ore to the paradise of the 
snipe diooter. Lake Jackson." 

January 26, 1856. CoR DE Chasse. 



NEW PROCESS 



FOR THE 



CULTURE OF THE VJNE 



BY 



P E R S Z , ^^ 



WOFKSSOR TO THE FACULTY OF SCIENCES OF STRASBOURG; DIRBCTING PROFESSOR O* ' 
SCHOOL OF PHARMACY OF THE SAMB CITY 



TRANSLATED BY 

J. O'C. BAECLAY, 



SURGEON U. S. N 



iq-EW YORK: 
A. 0. MOORE, AGRICULTURAL BOOK PUBLISHER, 

(LATE C. M. SAXTON & CO.) 

No. 140 FULTON STREET. 

1858. 



Eotered according to Act of Congress, In the year One Thousand Eight Hundied 

and Fifty-six, by 

C. M. SAXTON & COMPANY, 

In the Clerk's Office of the Distnct Court for the Sfuthern District ot New Yo'k. 



E. O. JENKINS, 

rintcr anb ^tcreolgpcr^ 

No, 2C Feankfoet Street. 



DEDICATORY, 

TO NICHOLAS LONG WORTH, Esq., 

Whose intelligent eifforts and great perseverance 
have done so much toward establishing, upon a 
firm basis, the culture of the vine, and the art 
of winemaking in the United States, is dedi- 
cated this version of Professor Persoz's mono- 
graph upon the Culture of the Yine. In mak- 
ing this offering to one, who is known wherever 
on the hillsides of the clear Ohio the vine glad- 
dens the vintager, the translator feels assured 
that, through him, it will speedily reach the 
hands for which it is principally intended — the 
hands of the practical cultivator. Guided by 
the admirable instruction therein contained — 
offspring of science and experiment — the rural 
population of our Middle States, invoking Ceres 
aDd BacchuSj may plant the alleys of their smil- 
ing vineyards with the golden corn, and in due 
season gather in the double reward of their 

toil. 

[lii] 



IV DEDICATORY. 

Many a rock on which now the wild rose 
scarcely finds sufficiency of nutriment, may, 
under the hand of him who, unblessed with 
hoarded capital, still rejoices in the capital of 
thews and sinews, start into luxuriant vegeta- 
tion ; and thus plots of barren mountain side, 
attainable even by indigence, may prove sources 
of support, perhaps of ease, to many who now 
subsist upon the wages paid by an employer. 

In dedicating this work to you, the translator 
in some measure makes you responsible for its 
circulation, and should this circulation, in any 
degree, advance the knowledge of the culture 
of the vine, in which, with yourself, he feels a 
deep interest, he will deem himself fully remu- 
nerated for the labor and expense of the under- 
taking. 



TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE. 

The subject treated of in the following pages 
is one which has taken a strong hold upon the 
mind of the American public, and as the inter- 
est manifested in it has grown with the rapid- 
ity which characterizes every undertaking in 
which the genius of our people embarks, we 
have thought that the labor of a few hours 
could not be better bestowed than in bringing 
before our agricultural masses the philosophical 
system proposed and pursued by Prof. Persoz. 

This system, suggested by the laws of agri- 
cultural chemistry to an intelligent mind, has 
Deen boldly carried on in consonance with those 
laws, and, illustrated by happy experiment, has 
resulted in a method, admirable for its clearness, 
neatness, and economy of labor and space. The 
cultivator of the vine, no longer groping in the 
dark, no longer trusting to traditionary and 
empirical usages, may now begin with a rea- 

[V] 



vi tkai^slatoe's pkeface. 

sonable prospect of witnessing a successful issue 
to his toil. Unembarrassed by peculiarities of 
soil, almost indifferent, indeed, whether there be 
soil, he plants the precious wine-giving shrub 
in an artificial bed, containing all the elements 
necessary to the growth of the woody fibre, 
through which are to be elaborated the juices of 
the fruit ; and having witnessed this growth ad- 
vancing with a celerity not generally exhibited 
by nature in the temperate zones, curiously 
watches for the moment when its fall develop- 
ment points out that the energies of the roots 
(one ofiice being fulfilled), may advantageously 
be diverted from the fabrication of cellulose to 
the crowning effort — fructification. The rich 
compost which has covered his trellises with 
branch, tendril, and leaf, is now superseded by 
another, equally efficacious in its line, and, in- 
stead of beholding the shooting forth of a luxu- 
riant growth of wood, doomed to be severed by 
the pruner's knife, he sees the swelling clusters 
of the grape, bending the parent stem with their 
luscious burden. 

By this new method more than half of the 



TRANSLATOK S PREFACE. VU 

(abor ordinarily devoted to the culture of the 
vine is rendered unnecessary, and at least one- 
half of the soil may be tilled and appropriated 
to the production of culinary or other vegeta- 
bles, or even to some of the cereals, no injury 
thereby resulting to the vine. 

The experiments of Prof. Persoz having been 
conducted upon no very extended scale, afforded 
him no opportunity of testing the vinous qual- 
ity of the grape ; but since the very elements 
indicated by nature, are offered to the plant, 
and are assimilated by it, there should be no 
reasonable doubt that the excellence of the 
fruit for vinification will prove to correspond 
with the healthfulness of the vine. Rich ma- 
nures, as is well known, have always been 
avoided by the wise cultivator, whose desire is to 
produce a full-flavored, saccharine grape ; and 
in certain localities of France, the municipal 
authority has interfered to prevent the use of 
such gross stimulants, which, while they produce 
abundant wood and large crops of fruit, impart 
something of their rankness to the juice. 

In Prof. Persoz's method of culture, none of 



viii translator's preface. 

the grossness of the initial manures can be com- 
municated to the grape ; for it is not until these 
manures have fulfilled their office that the plant 
is called upon for fructification, and the stimu- 
lants then applied are inodorous and destitute 
of sapidity. Such being the case, no adventi- 
tious and offensive flavor will, in all probability, 
be associated with the juices of the fruit, and 
we may safely calculate on obtaining just such 
a crop as the particular vine selected would 
give, under the most favorable circumstances of 
soil and culture. The temperature and expos- 
ure (upon which temperature in part depends), 
have much to do with the perfecting of the 
fruit, and these should be carefully studied. 
Drainage and irrigation are rendered so easy 
by this method, that this alone would induce 
many to follow the system of trenching here 
laid down. 

In conclusion, we would remark that no- 
where, as in this work, have we seen the cul- 
ture of the vine set forth in terms so clear, and 
so utterly free from empirical notions ; and we 
cannot but wish that every one whose revenue 



translator's preface. ix 

depends upon the result of the vmtage, may 
carefully study and faithfully pursue the excel 
lent advice here offered. 

Jno. O'C. Barclay, 

Surgeon, U. S. Navy, Philadelphia. 



The new method of culture which we pro- 
pose — permitting, for the production of aHment- 
ary plants, the utilization of half of the soil 
devoted to the culture of the vine — may seem, 
at first, completely to deviate from the divers 
modes, brought into use in our times, in the 
various viticultural regions. In order, however, 
to allay the fears of cultivators, we lose no time 
in stating that this is not the case. In fact, we 
do not pretend, either to offer a new system of 
pruning — since that which we propose has re- 
ceived the sanction of a long experience — or of 
giving as novel the development of our vines on 
trellises — though the form of that which we 
present offers some peculiarities — since in Italy, 
in the south of France, in certain of the Rhen- 
ish provinces, methods are followed which, in 
a greater or less degree, approximate to the 



XU PREFACE. 

regular disposition which we describe ; or of 
modifying the manner of removing buds and 
of tying the vine. 

That by which our process is distinguished 
from all others, consists in this : that we collect 
all the vine stocks of a certain superficies of 
soil in a single trench, in which, by an initial 
chemical action, we stimulate, in the first place, 
the growth of the wood, and then, by a second 
action, the development of the fruit. We have 
arrived at this result by establishing, through 
direct experiment, that in the manures adapted 
to the culture of the vine, there are materials, 
some of which serve exclusively for the increase 
of the cellular tissue, that is to say of the wood, 
others for the development of the germ — fruit 
or grape — and that the action of these sub- 
stances, instead of being simultaneous, should 
be successive. By the application of these 
principles, we arrest at will the growth of the 
wood, which, in the ordinary processes, is regu- 
lated only after artificial and empirical means. 



EXPLANATION OF PLATES. 



PLATE I. 

Figure I. — Elevation of a trellis seen in a longitudinal 
direction. 

a a — eaitt line, 

a h c d — first trench or ditch. 



a b c d — second trench or ditch. 



E P R—E P R—E P iJ— Posts two yards and six 
inches in length, by two and three-fourths to four 
inches of a side, buried one yard and three inches 
in the earth ; on these posts are stretched the iron 
wires. 

L S — Slats of two and three fourths to four inches 
in width by one inch in thickness, pierced with 
holes at intervals, for the passage of osier ties, 
111, destined to fix the canes of the lower stage 
of the trellis. These slats are supported, viz., at 
their extremities by the aid of small pegs or brack- 
ets attached to the posts E P R at their middle, 
by means of the stakes o g. 



XIV EXPLANATION OF PLATES. 

g — Stakes two feet four inches in length by two 

inches of a side, buried fourteen inches in the earth 
and sustaining the slats L S, which are fastened 
by a nail — m t — n u, iron wires stretched on eaeh 
side of the posts. 

1 1 1 — Osier ties serving to attach the vines to the 
slats L S, of the first stage, and to the iron wires m 
t of the second. 

3 3 3 — Straw ties, by aid of which the young shoots 
are fastened to the wires of the second and third 
stages. 



k k — Reserved vine stocks. 

J J J' — Props or Supports. 

F G HI--F G HJ--F GH I— Yme stocks laid 
down in the trench. 

Figure 2. — ^Plan of three trellises. 

z z — Soil susceptible of being devoted to the culture 
of alimentary plants. 



EXPLANATION OF PLATES. XV 

Figure 3. — Commencement of trellis with side view 
of a post. 

Figure 4. — Cross section of trellis on a larger scale. 



PLATE II. 
Figure 1. — Wood of first year's growth. 

Figure 2. — Second year yTi\h.Jirst pruning t ab ; c d ; 



PLATE III. 

Figure 3. — ^Third year with second pruning^ ah; 

II II I I II II II II II 
ah; c d ; c d ; e J*; e f. 



Figure 4. — Fourth year with third pruning^ ah; 

III II II III III II II III III 
ah; c d; c d; e f ; e f. 



NEW PROCESS 



FOR THE 



Cttltitiatioii 0f iljt f iiir. 



CULTURE. OF THE VINE. 



THEORETICAL PART. 

While giving attention to some ornamental plants, 
we .were led, several years ago, to the employment of 
preparations or artificial manures, destined to multi- 
ply tlie number of tlie flowers, and to augment the 
brilliaDcy of their tints: the results then attained, 
suggest^ed to us the idea of undertaldng essays in a 
more utilitarian view, in other words, for the promo- 
tion of agriculture. 

It was with the vine that we exclusively occupied 
ourselves; first, because the small plot of ground 
which we had at our disposition did not permit us to 
try the same experiments upon other plants ; in the 
second place, because, initiated from childhood into 
this particular culture, we were better able to examine 
into it, and to "compare issues. In 1846 we made 
known to the Academy the results to which we had 
been led by the parall 3I culture of two vine stocks, of 

[19] 



20 SUCCESSFUL EXPERIMENTS. 

"whicli one had been treated with phosphates, the other 
abandoned to itself. The first, which showed an ex- 
tremely vigorous vegetation — we gave at the time the 
measures of the shoots, in diameter and length — was 
loaded with grapes ; the other, on the contrary, was 
without fruit. Since that time the stock subjected to 
the influence of the phosphates, has never failed an- 
nually to be covered with grapes ; all the fruit-bearing 
branches or shoots of the year, the largest of which 
did not exceed in length and thickness the dimen- 
sions of a swan's quill, and the middling sized ones 
those of a goose quill, have always borne, at the least, 
two bunches, often five, commonly three, and all the 
fruit would bear comparison with the best Chasselas. 

Finally, to complete this first experiment, during 
the last spring we subjected a normal stock, which, 
never having received artificial manuring, had never 
presented more than a few bunches, to the same treat- 
ment with that to which it served as a term of com- 
parison, and it was, this autumn, covered with fruit to 
such an extent as to excite the astonishment, not only 
of those who have followed our comparative experi 
ments, but also of those who were called upon to 
judge of it for the first time. 



SPECIAL MANURES. 21 

The principle wMcli directed us at the commence^ 
ment of our researches, is very simple. No wine exists 
which does not contain tartar, or what the chemist de- 
nominates bitartrate of potassa: if then the plant is 
required to form tartaric acid, it is indispensable that 
it vshould be furnished with the potassa necessary. 
Now, to give to the vine the potassa of which it stands 
in need, the potassic salt must be chosen in such a 
state that the roots may assimilate it without incon- 
venience to the plant; and, moreover, the epoch at 
which it is proper to offer it to them must be deter- 
mined. After having, in the aforementioned note, 
signified the state in Avhich. the salt of potassa should be 
administered, we had still to determine what influence 
would be exerted on vegetation hf the ammoniacal 
salts, or by the nitrates, and to indicate the moment 
when it would be proper to cause the potassic salt to 
act. To this end we devoted ourselves to numerous 
experiments, which were facilitated by the obliging 
kindness of Mr. Michelle, formerly rector, who placed 
at our disposition a portion of the garden at the 
Academy, of which he enjoyed the use. 

To discover the veritable agents in vegetation, we 
caused the germination and veg 'Station of maize, com- 



22 SPECIAL SOIL. 

mon beans, peas, barley, spring wheat, kidney-beans, 
and two species of cabbage, in twenty-six different 
media ; but, in opposition to that whicli has generally 
been done, up to the present time, instead of taking 
any soil at hazard, as the starting point of our experi- 
ments, whdch. always leaves some uncertainty hovering 
over the direct or indirect part played by the substance 
tried, we adopted, as the basis of our operations, pure 
silica — the white sand of the glass blowers — and in 
pots of the capacity of about three quarts, some of them 
filled with pure sand, others with, sand, to which was 
added, either pure phosphate of lime — ^this same phos- 
phate mingled with carbon or other organic matter — 
or silicate of potassa, pure or mixed with phosphate of 
lime, all the pheYiomena of vegetation were accom- 
plished ; the circumstances were in other respects the 
same, since these vessels had the same exposure, and 
were irrigated with water, the nature of which was 
known to us. 

From these various experiments, the details of 
which will be published in proper time and place, has 
resulted the proof that for all the aforementioned 
plants, the kidney bean excepted, the phosphate of 
lime, and the silicate of potassa^soluble glass — are 



ACTION OF PHOSPHATES AND SILICATES. 23 

the eminently active agents of vegetation. No com- 
parison can be drawn between the products, not only 
of the pure sand, but likewise of this sand mingled 
with substances, until now marked as exercising the 
most efficacious action upon vegetation — the ammonia- 
cal salts, the nitrates of potassa and soda — and those 
of this sand mixed with phosphates. To give an idea 
of it, it will be sufficient for us to say that the maize, 
which languished and did not come into ear in the pure 
sand, vegetated on the contrary, and fructified in this 
same sand, mixed with phosphate of lime, and still 
better in this sand, to which had been added either - 
bone black or phosphate of lime, silicate of potassa, 
and a certain quantity of organic matter. The peas 
furnished results quite as palpable. * Their vegetation, 
which was feeble and imperfect in .the pure sand, and 
in the same sand to which was added a certain quan- 
tity of nitrates, or of ammoniacal salts, was on the 
other hand vigorous in sand to which was added phos- 
phate of lime, pure or mingled with carbon ; in this 
the plant flourished and produced seed. 

The action of the phosphates was particularly re- 
markable on the graminese, when they were accom- 
panied by silicate of potassa. With the kidney bean 



24 VEGETATION OF KIDNEY-BEAN. 

these differences which we have just set forth did not 
take place, as has already been established by Mr. 
Boussingault ; the vegetation of this legume is nearly 
as vigorous in pure sand as in sand to which any sub- 
stance whatever has been added; it is therefore an 
alimentary plant which may be cultivated without 
great exhaustion of the soil. To recapitulate, it seems 
to us established that the most indispensable agents to 
vegetation are the phosphates, the carbonate of lime, 
and silicate of potassa. This conclusion, at first sight, ^ 
seems not to agree with that which various experi- 
menters, and we ourselves, have already publish-ed. 

Some chemists, in fact, have advanced that the am- 
moniacal salts are the most powerful agents in vegeta- 
tion; others have attributed a still greater power to 
the nitrates, through their transformation, in determi- ., 
nate circumstances, into ammoniacal salt. But if the 
action of these bodies is incontestable in certain cases, 
it has not been demonstrated that it always takes 
place. Too frequently there has been an omission in 
noting the effect of such or such an agent, and partic- 
ularly in ascertaining whether it should be attributed 
to a direct or indirect action. Because under a variety 
of circumstances the ammoniacal salts have produced 



INDIRECT ACTION OF AMMONIA. 25 

^ 

remarkable effects (and in relation to this the numer- 
ous and important publications of Mr. Scbattenmann 
may be consulted), without other demonstrative proof 
than elementary analysis, the principle has been laid 
down that ammonia acts directly on the plant by the 
nitrogen which it furnishes to it ; but if such were the 
case, the ammoniacal salts would everywhere produce 
identical and incontestable effects. Now, if it is 
otTierwise, it is more probable that the action of these 
salts is only indirect. We will endeavor to elucidate 
the reason of this. 

Whichever ammoniacal salt, muriate, sulphate, or 
acetate, we pour at the foot of a plant, we remark, after 
a few days, on the surface of the soil, and on the very 
spot which has been watered, a white crust, presenting 
ail the physical and chemical characters of chalk — car- 
bonate of lime. 

K chalk is found to be of the number of products of 
the action of an ammoniacal salt upon the vegetable 
soil, the ammonia must momentarily have been in the 
state of a carbonate ; but to recognize even the mo- 
mentary formation of this carbonate is to admit a 
secondary and consecutive reaction, for we know that 

the carbonate of ammonia cannot be in contact with 
2 ^ 



26 EFFICACY OF AMMONIA EXPLAINED. 

the salts of potassa or soda — sulphates, muriates, 
nitrates — without decomposing them, and giving birth 
to an ammoniacal salt, and to a corresponding quantity 
of carbonate of potassa or of soda.* And who would 
doubt the energy of these last, either in agriculture — 
now that we know the efficacy of ashes employed in 
reasonable quantity — or in theory, since the labors of 
Dulong have unveiled the potent action of the alkaline 
carbonates on the insoluble salts ? 

This formation of alkaline carbonates being ad- 
mitted, we can conceive that phosphates, insoluble sili- 
cates, now absorbable by plants, may be disaggregated 
by these carbonates, and rendered soluble, either di- 
rectly or indirectly, by carbonic acid, or by the organic 
acids developed during the decomposition of animal 
or vegetable matter, and may become fitted to enter 
into the stream of the circulation. Thus, in admitting 
the efficacy of the ammoniacal salts, we explain it in 
a totally different manner ; and, instead of proscribing, 
as has been done, the carbonate of ammonia, and fur- 
nishing the plant -svith non-volatile ammoniacal salts — 
sulphate and muriate — we admit the momentary for- 

* Soda has been manufactured on a large scale by this pro- 
cess. 



boussingault's farm. 27 

mation of this carbonate, and deduce from it the re- 
markable effects which observation estabhshes. 

Certain facts also present themselves to give value 
to this reasoning. Mr. Boussingault, who, on his 
farm, has several, times endeavored to establish the 
action of the ammoniacal salts upon the cereals, has 
never arrived at very favorable results in the employ- 
ment of these two salts. The manner in which we view 
Ae action of these ammoniacal salts may explain the 
fact : the waters of Pechelbronn being rich in phos- 
phates, the soil should be so likewise, and, consequently, 
as the plants there naturally meet with the quantity 
of phosphates of which they stand in need, the am- 
moniacal salts are without appreciable effect upon 
them. As for the nitrates of potassa and soda, if it is 
incontestable that they are transformed into ammonia 
by the action which organic matter exercises upon 
them, it is not the less so that their base passes into 
the state of a carbonate. They should, then, exercise 
a doubly energetic action, first, by the indirect effect 
of the carbonate ammonia, which excites the formation 
of the carbonate of soda or carbonate of potassa, then 
by the direct effect of the carbonate which comes from 
their base. 



28 STRUCTUKE OF ORGANIZED BEINGS. 

Thus, then, compelled by our experiments to contest 
the direct action of the amm.oniacal salts, and of the 
nitrates which has been so much vaunted, we admit 
their indirect action in certain soils. 

In examining the structure of organized beings, we 
soon find that their tissue is nothing more than an 
agglomeration of cells of complex nature ; for it is in- 
contestable that parallel with the organic cell there is 
formed an inorganic one which serves for the consolida- 
tion of the former. If any doubt could exist as to this, 
one need only have recourse to experiments, and sub- 
ject to incineration a leaf, a vine twig, a bone, etc. 
The organic matter having disappeared, the exact 
image of the organ remains. jNow, we should not be 
astonished at finding among the number of the con- 
stituent principles of these ashes, carbonate and phos- 
phate of lime; for besides the property Avhich these 
saline compounds enjoy of being able to enter into 
solution in water, by the help of the weakest acids, 
and of thus becoming transportable by the sap of 
vegetables, and the blood of animals, through the most 
delicate vessels to every part of the organs, there to 
become insoluble by the intervention of a base ; they 
farther offer the quite special character of not being 



PHOSPHATE OF LIME IK BONE. 29 

subjected to the ordinary laws of displacement which 
the other saline compounds experience. Thus, if we 
treat a sulphate — soluble or insoluble — with a power- 
ful base, this base appropriates the sulphuric acid, and 
sets the oxide at liberty. Now a similar salt could 
not participate in the formation of the osseous system 
of animals, since the base which would contribute to 
precipitate it, would effect its complete decomposition, 
and would thus disorganize the cell. On the contrary, 
with the phosphates and carbonates, the former parti- 
cularly, the most powerful base never completely re- 
moving from a phosphate its phosphoric acid, its action 
is always limited to the formation of an insoluble basic 
phosphate, and this is precisely the reason why the 
phosphate of lime has so large a share in the formation 
of bone. Eendered soluble by carbonic acid, and by 
the acids of the digestive apparatus, it dissolves, enters 
into the stream of the circulation, then by the influ- 
ence of the alkaline secretions, it returns to the state 
of an insoluble basic compound, indecomposable, while 
the functions are in a normal condition. If the car- 
bonate of lime is susceptible of being dissolved, and 
of being precipitated afresh under the same conditions 
with the phosphates, we will not be wrong in saying 



80 PHOSPHATE AND CAKBONATE OF LIME. 

that its stability, or the resistance which it opposes, is 
due to another cause. The carbonates are subjected to 
the ordinary laws of displacement, but as the carbo- 
nate of lime is not decomposed, except by the most 
concentrated caustic alkalies, the result is, that once 
lodged in a cell, it cannot be removed from it by the 
feeble base which provoked its deposit. 

Besides the part which they may take in the forma- 
tion of cells, these two compounds have still other 
offices to perform, which are to saturate the acids 
which are developed during the vital functions of 
beings, and to excite by their presence modifications 
in the spontaneous decompositions which are observed. 
If by reason of the facility with which the phos- 
phate and carbonate of lime become soluble and capa- 
ble of circulating in the vessels, to be there afterward 
rendered in some sort indefinitely insoluble, we have 
been able to comprehend without difficulty all the im- 
portance of the functions of these two agents, we 
must avow that it has been difficult for us to account 
for the part played by the silica which is found in such 
large quantity in certain plants. Nothing is more 
simple than to represent to one's-self silica in solution ; 
feldspathic formations are incessantly broken down^ 



ERROR OF CHEMISTS DETECTED. 31 

effloresce and are decomposed to give rise on the one 
hand to clays^ on the other to silicates with a base of 
potassa or soda, which remain in solution. Here 
then is this material in the state in which it is suscep- 
tible of being transported by water in the vessels of 
organized beings ; but how is it there set at liberty ? 
Up to the present time chemists have accorded to acids 
alone the power of decomposing the silicates ; but to 
a'dmit such a principle is to reduce one's-self at the same 
time to tlie impossibility of explaining the liberation 
of silica, and to consecrate the most enormous of con- 
tradictions. The phosphate of bones has evidently 
been deposited under the influence of an alkali; since 
it is a salt with an excess of base. That which is 
found in the framework of vegetables is deposited 
there under the same conditions, with this sole differ- 
ence, that most frequently the deposit is determined 
by a slow and secondary action of the carbonate of 
lime. K tlien, in one and the other case, we cannot 
conceive of the deposit, except by the intervention of 
a basic body, how can we explain the part which the 
silica plays, concurrently with the phosphate and car 
bonate of lime, in the formation of cells ? We have 
been fortunate enough to find for this problem a solu« 



32 OFFICE OF SEA-SALT EXPLAINED. 

tion, wliich is also the solution of a long-mooted im- 
portant question, viz., what part does sea-salt perform 
in agriculture. 

What influence does thi^ salt exercise in agriculture, 
or what is its action upon vegetation ? This is a ques- 
tion which has long been under debate, and one of 
which the solution is still looked for. There is no 
doubt that in presence of carbonate of ammonia, sea- 
salt is able to furnish carbonate of soda; we may 
therefore, from this point of view, already represent it 
to ourselves as the source of a powerful alkali; but 
this action is but secondary in connection with the 
mysterious and important part which we have recog- 
nized in it. Sea-salt, in fact, in opposition to all theo- 
retical calculation, is no sooner brought into contact 
with silicate of potassa — soluble glass of Fuchs — than 
the silica is displaced; if, however, this displacement 
occurs in presence of a large quantity of water, the 
silica remains in solution, and by spontaneous evapora- 
tion appears in the state of a transparent jelly ; if, on 
the contrary, it is effected in presence of a large quan 
tity of salt, the silica is precipitated in a pulverulent 
and opaque form, possessing all the characters of those . 
deposits which are often met with in the neighborhood 



REPETITION OF EXPERIMENTS. S8 

of banks of saliferous formations. Thus is expli^uied 
the efficacious and direct action which sea-salt, empl-^yed 
in proper proportion, always exercises in the culture 
of plants which require silica for the formation of 
their framework — (the graminese, for example). 

Now that we have, as we think, demonstrated in an 
incontestable manner the efficacy of the phosphates, 
carbonates, and silicates, and have through the peculiar 
properties enjoyed by them, given a sufficient expla- 
nation of the part played by these bodies, let us return 
to our subject. 

Our first essays were directed, as we have said, to 
subjects of a vigorous vegetation. The vine stocks of 
the experiment having already been developed to a 
certain point, the potassic salts, for that very reason, 
exercised upon them a less energetic action ; moreover, 
these salts not being very soluble, reached the roots of 
the plants too tardily to permit us to appreciate their 
entire action. 

On repeating the same experiments upon young 
vine stocks, and employing a stronger dose of the 
potassic salt, we observed, without astonishment, that 
the vegetation, far from taking on a more rapid de- 
velopment, lost, on the contrary, so much of its energy 



34 AKTIFICIAL CULTUEE. 

that ttie subjects became stnnted. The excess of the 
potassic salts here exercised the action of sea-salt upon 
those plants which vegetate accidentally in saliferoiis 
soils ! It is known that the development of such 
plants is so reduced, that some botanists have made 
distinct species of them. While reflecting upon these 
effects, we were struck with the idea of dividing the 
julture of the vine into two parts ; of seeking first to 
give to the wood, as well by particular care as by the 
intervention of the phosphate of lime, all the develop- 
ment of which it is susceptible, then to act solely with 
a view to determine the fructification. Thus have we 
arrived at the plan of substituting for the ordinary 
culture of the vine, which we may call tlie natural 
culture^ a culture which is completely artificial. 

To obtain all the possible development of the wood, 
we set various vine stocks in trenches, at the bottom 
of which we had introduced about one kilogramme per 
square metre* of a compost formed, 

1. Of coarsely pulverized bones (bone dust of com- 
merce). 

2. Of clippings of leather or fragments of horn. 

* Two pounds, avoirdupois, to the square yard, constitute the 
same proportion as that of the text. — Translator. 



COMPARATIVE RESULTS. 35 

We covered the whole of this with good stable manure, 
mingled with earth. Three vine shoots, a b c, treated 
after this manner in the month of March, 1847, fur- 
nished us, viz. : 

a. Isabella Yine, of Yirginia, one cane 23 feet 10 inches long, and 
YcV i^cl^ ^^ diameter. 

b. White Ohasse- ( One of 19 feet 6 inches long, ) -^y^ inch 
las, two canes, ( the other of 18 feet 1 7o iiich long, j diameter. 

c. 'Eosy Chasse- ( One of 14 feet 6 inches long, ) -/y^^ inch 
las, two canes, ( the other of 14 feet 2 inches long, ) diameter. 

In the spring of this year, three young rooted vines, 
d e fj subjected to a sunilar treatment, gave us, viz. : 

d. White Muscat, one cane of 21 feet "7 j^ inches long, ) -f^\ inch 

e. Gray Tokay, one cane of 21 feet 11 -^^ inches long, ) diameter. 

/. Gray Muscat, i One 14 feet 6 j\ inches long, ) -^^^ inch 
two canes, ( the other 14 feet 6 inches long, ) diameter. 

Having at the same time covered the roots of the 
three vine stocks, a b c, with a certain quantity of 
silicate of potassa (the soluble glass of Fuchs), we ob- 
tained the follo^T.ng results : 

On the stock a, (Isabella), 48 shoots put forth from 
the axils, and each of these bore three or four bunches. 



S6 COMPAEATIVE RESULTS. 

On the stock h were developed 23 shoots, having at 
the base a diameter of yYo ^^ ^^ inch. Upon each of 
these shoots there were, on an average, three bunches 
of grapes. The stock c presented 80 shoots, each 
bearing, on an average, three grapes. The diameter 
of these shoots gives a mean of yVo ^^ ^^ i^^ch ; one of 
them, that which terminated the wood of the last year, 
attained a length of 10 feet 9 yVo iiiches. From all 
the comparative trials which we have made, we have 
concluded that we must guard ourselves against con- 
founding the development of the wood or cellulose, 
with that of the germ, seeing that in many cases the 
predominance of the one takes place only at the ex- 
pense of the other. After all we do but confirm a fact 
already known, for we are generally aware that a tree 
which puts forth very vigorous shoots rarely bears 
fruit; and, on the contrary, that one in which the 
cellular development is artificially retarded is com- 
monly loaded with it. 



CULTURE. 

It is not our intention to develop tha various systems 
followed in cultivating tlie vine, that we may compare 
tliem witli that which we have just proposed; a labor 
of this sort would here be useless. The sole fact 
which it concerns us to establish is, that each vine 
stock must extract from the soil in which it is planted, 
the elements necessary to the development of its cells 
and germ, unless we furnish directly to its roots the 
quantity and quality of manures which suit it. In the 
former case, these elements are furnished to it by the 
successive decompositions which are effected in the 
bosom of the earth. Now, as the potassic salts, indis- 
pensable to fructification, proceed most frequently from 
the alterations which the feldspathic rocks suffer, and 
as these break down only through the concurrence of 
heat and humidity, the success of a harvest, until now, 
all other circumstances being equal, has depended, in 
great degree, upon atmospheric influences. Thus, if a 
vine stock requires ten parts of potassa that it may 
bear fruit ; and if the action of heat and rain upon the 

(87) 



38 LABOR ECONOMIZED BY TRENCHING. 

rocks and soil, in a decomposing state, can furnish but 
five parts, the crop fails. 

This danger is warded off by our system of culture, 
in which the vine will constantly have proper nourish- 
ment; but it must b^ understood, that in guarantee- 
ing to the vinedresser, who has recourse to it, the 
quantity of the j^roduct, we do not pretend to give 
him any assurance as to the quality, this latter being 
always dependent upon the temperature. 

The trouble of treating each vine stock separately, 
would be avoided by establishing a trench of sufficient 
dimensions, in which should be laid down a certain 
number of shoots, to which should first be given all 
the manure indispensable to their development ; then, 
at the end of one or two years, the quantity of potas- 
sic salts recognized as necessary to the formation of 
the fruit. 

The various trials which we made upon a small 
scale having answered our expectations, and having, 
up to the latest moment, controlled each the others, 
there does not exist in our mind the smallest doubt as 
to the value of our experiments. 

It remains only to establish by trials undertaken 
upon a scale of a certain magnitude, whether the wine 



TEfilSrCHING AND PLANTING. 89 

proceeding from a grape thus obtained has all the 
qualities of another wine, and whether all the varieties 
of the vine lend themselves advantageously to a system 
of culture, the details of which we shall now give. 

To put the subject in a clearer light, let us suppose 
that on a slope sixty-five yards long by thirteen broad 
we desire^o cultivate the vine. At the lower part we 
dig a trench one yard three inches wide, by about 
eighteen inches deep (see plate I.), according to the 
nature of the soil, the exposure, and the climate. 

The trench should be deeper if the soil is dry and 
sandy, or if the climate is hot ; if, on the contrary, the 
soil is heavy^ the climate humid and cold, it should be 
shallower, that the sun's rays may exercise a greater 
action. 

In this trench we lay down {plant by layering) old 
vine shoots, or in default of these, we plant young 
vine stocks, to which has j)reviously been given the 
culture requisite for successful layering. In either 
case it Avill be .proper beforehand to prune the vine 
destined for layering the following year, so as not to 
allow the putting forth of more than two, or at most 
three buds, that the sap may be accumulated upon 
these canes, which by increasing their strength will 



40 METHOD OF LAYEKING 

cause them to attain a length of eight, or even ten feet, 
if possible. This length is indispensable, in order that 
upon the stock a number of radicles r)iay he developed in 
proportion to the respiratory organs of tJie stem (the 
branches, leaves, and fruit). 

In treating, after this fashion, either old or joung 
vine stocks, we arrange matters so as to obtain 
throughout the whole extent of the trench sixty or 
seventy layers, each one of which is allowed to retain 
two buds only. Of these seventy layers, forty-eight are 
directed by fours around stakes E E E E, (plate I.), forty 
or forty -five inches set apart, which are destined to 
support the trellis ; as for the others, they rise up on the 
opposite side of the trench, and are reserved to replace 
those which may die. In laying down the shoots, 
an indispensable precaution to be taken consists in 
removing with the pruning knife, those buds which 
may be found upon the stem to be buried, and to 
make also, upon the articulation a slight incision, 
which, by impeding the flow of sap, produces upon 
the spot a swelling^ and eventually a proper develop- 
ment of radicles. By neglecting this precaution we 
deprive several articulations of roots. If some vine- 
dressers understand the advantage that there is in not 



COMPOST FOR TRENCHLcs. 41 

layering the vine until the moment at which the buds 
have acquired a certain development — a half to three- 
fourths of an inch — it is because, without thinking of 
it, they then naturally muke at each articulation a 
wound, while detaching these buds with the thumb. 

The buds having been removed, we place upon the 
shoots laid in the trench, about two and a half, or two 
and three-fourths inches in depth, of a soil with which 
has previously been mingled, for each square yard of 
trench surface. 

Six pounds of bone dust, three pounds of clippings 
of skins, leather (shoemaker's and tanner's refuse), 
shavings of horns, hoofs, blood, etc., one pound of 
plaster ; or one hundred and twenty pounds of this 
mixture for a trench of twelve yards long. The pro- 
portions indicated may be increased without incon- 
venience, since this compost acts slowly. 

When the soil is tenacious or clayey, it is beneficial 
to mix with it, either sand or marl, or finely powdered 
charcoal, that the soil may be rendered mobile, and 
that the development of the radicles may be favored. 
To this end, we may also add to this stratum of phos- 
phated compost a certain quantity of cow or horse 
dung. We have made experiments which prove 



42 DEVELOPMENT OF EOOTS. 

that if we layer a shoot, at a certain depth, so as to 
cause it to describe a wide letter U, the roots cannot 
develop themselves at a greater depth than from six 
to ten inches: below this either no roots at all are 
found, or thej are rudimentary.' 

Though these data refer to the circumstances under 
which we operated, and though the surrounding tem- 
perature, and the nature of the soil may modify them, 
it nevertheless remains established that at the moment 
when the roots strike, the wood should be covered 
with but a moderate quantity of soil, that they may be 
more accessible to solar heat. Now, if heat is neces- 
sary, we can understand that the manure employed 
contributes, by its decomposition, not a little to hasten 
the development of the roots, and consequently that of 
the vine. 

The sap being in motion, in o"^der to assure the suc- 
cess of this new method of culture, we must, when the 
two shoots, which have been procured from each layer, 
have attained a length of four inches, pinch off the 
weaker, so that all the sap may be directed to the 
more vigorous one, w^hich then takes a rapid develop- 
ment, and requires constant care. Thus, for example, 
a plantation of this kind should be visited every eight 



TREATMENT OF YOUNG VINES 43 

days, the young shoots should be tied to suppons, pre- 
cautions being taken that the cells, which offer but a 
slight resistance, may not be lacerated, that the growth 
may not be hindered, and that we should not forget to 
suppress each bud growing at the axil of a leaf; then, 
if we have been able to layer, at least two yards six 
inches of shoots, and if at each articulation roots have 
been develo]3ed, we are sure of obtaining from the 
very first year stems at least sixteen feet long. 

If some shoots seem unthrifty, we must not hesitate 
to relayer them, never leaving more than two buds to 
each layer. 

When we have managed to develop canes as vigor- 
ous as those of which we have given the diameter, we 
proceed to the formation of the trellis. To this end, 
we plant, at a distance of two yards, twenty -five and a 
half inches, and at a depth of one yard three inches, 
three posts, E P E, E P E, B P E, two yards six 
inches long, by a cross section of four by two and 
three-fourths inches. On the length of one yard three 
inches, which remains above the soil, we construct 
three stages. 

A first stage, at fifteen and a half inches from the 
earth, formed by two slats L S, two yards, twenty-five 



44 FORMATION OF TRELLIS. 

and a half inches long, by one and a tenth inch thick, 
and two and three-fourths to three and nine-tenths 
inches wide, pierced with holes throughout its whole 
length ; these slats are fastened by the two extremities 
to the posts E P R, and at the middle, to the pickets 
g^ which are one inch and ninety-five hundredths 
square, by thirty-one inches long, fifteen and a half 
inches of which are buried. A second stage, at eleven 
and seven-tenths inches above the first, composed of 
two strong iron wires, fixed by one of their ends to the 
two sides m m, of the post E, and by the other to the 
points t t of the two sides of the post R, after having 
been stretched, and then turned around a nail planted 
in the intermediate post P. 

A third stage, at twenty-three and a half inches 
above the first, and consequently at one metre above 
the soil, arranged exactly like the preceding, that is to 
say, in such a manner that the wires shall pass from the 
points n n to go to the points u u. 

Of the four layers, F G H I, F 6 H I, etc., issuing 
at the base of the posts E E E, we choose, in the 
spring, the two shortest; prune them, bend them cau- 
tiously to the two sides of the slats L S, — lower stage 
- — and at the same time we fasten them by osier ties 



TEAINING OF THE VINES. * 46 

111, which are passed througli the holes made in 
these slats, parallel to one another, the articulations 
being caused to alternate. This arrangement, while it 
affords greater space to the shoots, gives to the trellis 
the aspect of a continued series of vines trimmed 
crown fashion. ■ 

The canes of the other two remaining stocks are led 
along the wires of the intermediate stage mmjttj thai; 
is to say, upon each of the two sides of the posts 
E P E. They are fixed to the wires by means of 
osier ties 111, precaution being also here taken to 
cause the articulations to alternate. If a slat is em- 
ployed for the lower stage, it is solely with a view 
more easily to stretch the wires, to draw more forcibly 
upon them, without fearing- that the tops of the posts 
should approximate. 

When the canes, which constitute the trellis, are 
sufficiently developed, we famish the roots with the 
potassic salts which are to determine the fructification. 
To this end, we spread above the trench, at a distance 
of from two and three-fourths to three inches from the 
huried vines, four pounds, avoirdupois, per square 
superficial yard, of a mixture formed of eight pounds 
(av.) of silicate of potassa, two pounds (av.) of the 



46 TRENCHING AND PLANTING. 

double phosphate of potassa and lime, We then fill the 
trench level with the surface, and the roots have, for a 
long time, the quantity of potassa which is necessary 
for them ; to prevent its exhaustion, it is good to deposit 
each year, at the foot of the vine stocks, a certain quan- 
tity of the marc of the grape. This marc, or residuum 
from the press, furnishing by incineration two and a 
half per cent, of carbonate of potassa, restores annually 
to the trench a considerable quantity of the potassa 
which it had carried off. 

We may, in the same way, usefully employ the resi- 
due of the ashes from which ley has been made, which 
also contains potassa, and certain plants rich in potassic 
salts. 



CARE TO BE GIVEN TO THE TRELLIS. 

PKUNINa. 

Peuning is one of the important operations in the 
culture of the vine. The method which we follow is 
thair called Thomerj's. We will explain it in a few 
words, the figures which we give — Plate II — sparing 
us the trouble of entering into long details relating 
to it. 

The first year, we prune the trained wood (fig. 1.), 
by removing all the tendrils 00,00 ; each bud gives, 
during the growth of the year, a new cane (fig. 2), 
which bears at its lower part, a bud commonly called 
false hud; after this, throughout its whole length, a 
series of buds opposite to one another. 

The second year, the vine is trimmed from a to J, 
from c to c?, and from e to/ so as to preserve none but 
the true and false buds, which in turn, become each a 
cane (fig. 8), and as it is to our interest to preserve the 
shoots on a level with their respective stages, the 
pruning of the third year is directed : 

[4T] 



48 ' PRUNING. 

1st. Upon the wood of tlie second year, from a to i 

from c to c?, and from eiof, 

II II II 

2d. Upon tliat of tlie third year^ from a to 6, from c 
// // // 

to d^ from eiof. 

Here again, the true and false buds each give a cane ; 
So that on the fourth year the third pruning is 
directed upon the wood of the third year, in the direc- 
tion of the line a, care being taken not to reach the 
young wood, which is in juxta position with the old 
and from c to o?, and from e to /; then, still preserving 

the two buds, we trim the young wood from a to 6 , 

/// /// /// /// 

from c to d^ and from eio f. 

The young wood should be cut at a distance of six- 
tenths of an inch from the bud ; and when the old is 
cut, we must be careful not to attack the principal 
stem, as one is often- tempted to do for the sake of ap- 
pearance. It is better to leave a small end, which will 
dry up, and may be cut away the following year with- 
out producing a wound. 



REMOVAL OF BUDS 

When, toward the middle of the month of May, or a 
little later, the shoots of the year have acquired a cer- 
tain strength, those often surrounding the false bud, 
and in particular those which grow at the axil of the 
leaves, are to be removed, that the buds of the succeed- 
ing year may be better nourished. We then pinch off 
the extremity of each cane, to arrest the ascending flow 
of the sap, and to keep it in the lower regions, thus 
strengthening the wood which is to bear fruit. This 
operation deserves the greater attention, since its effects 
are felt less on the crop of the year than on that of the 
year following. 



LIFTINa. 

When the vine is leafless, eacli cane is lifted, and 
after having again removed bnds, if that is necessary, 
we attach, by means of a tie of straw or rush (plate I.) 
3 3 3, etc., viz., the shoots of the lower stage, partly 
to the stock, partly to the wire of the intermediate 
stage m t : and the shoots of the second stage, to the 
wire of the upper stage n u. This arrangement is 
figured in plate I. ; but we see the right side alone. 
The cross section, following the line x y (plate I., fig. 4), 
exhibits both sides at once. 

After the first year, particularly after the second, 
the effect of the potassic salts shows itself in so marked 
a manner upon the vine, that the growth of wood is 
retarded, to such a degree that we may blend into one, 
the two operations just described ; that is to say, after 
pruning, we may abandon the training until the 
flowering, and may remove buds, at the same time that 
we lift the shoots of the year. We have thus operated 
for two years. 

m 



MEANS OF PKOCURING COMPOSTS. 51 

lu the vineyard, the dimensions of which have been 
given above — thirteen yards in breadth, by sixty-five 
in length — we may dig, at a distance of five yard^ 
fifteen inches from each other, ten trenches parallel to 
that of which we have just spoken, and we may 
establish as many trelHses, separated only by the 
trenches. These trenches do not remain unfurnished ; 
elevating the shoots which the layers of reserve, 
properly spaced off, have necessarily furnished, we 
then ben-d them in the form of a distaflP around the 
supports J J J. 

Now that we have set forth the operations of the 
eulture, let us indicate the means of procuring the 
composts in question. The part played by tendons, 
horn, hoofs, and dried blood, etc., explains the interest 
which there is in carefully collecting them; but as 
these materials, now procurable at a very moderate 
price, might become too dear, it is of importance to 
seek the means of always having at our disposition 
large quantities of phosphates. This would be accom- 
plished by collecting urine, and turning it into a pit 
constructed of hydraulic mortar, and furnished in- 
ternally with plaster — sulphate of lime. This, attacked 
by the salts held in solution by the urine, yields an 



52 COMPOSTS. 

abundant deposit of phosphate and carbonate of lime ; 
the ammonia passes into the state of a sulphate, and 
this latter, separated by decantation, might be spread 
with advantage on certain soils. The deposit drained, 
might be employed in establishing trenches, for the 
development of the cellular tissue of the vine. 

As for the potassic salts, we must renounce the use 
of those which are met with in commerce, and which 
are very soluble. Their action on the vine is such, 
that they can be employed, only when mingled with 
eminently absorbent bodies, such as bone-black, which 
yields them up slowly to the roots. It is indispen- 
sable to employ none but salts which give up gradu- 
ally the potassa to the vine. The most advantageous, 
in this respect, is the soluble glass (silicate of potassa), 
which is obtained commonly by fusing fifteen parts of 
quartz (sand), with ten parts of the potassa of com- 
merce and two of charcoal. In this particular case, it 
is better to increase the proportion of potassa, to render 
the glass more attackable. It is, however, more econo- 
mical directly to employ the saltern. (This ig the 
residuum, after the evaporation of the lixivium from 
ashes, which is calcined in furnaces to furnish the 
potash of commerce.) 



PKEPARATION OF COMPOSTS. 53 

We propose fifteen parts of sand for thirty-five of 
the saltern. The mass thus obtained undergoes deli- 
quescence very readily. 

'We may also, when in the vicinity of feldspathio 
rocks with a base of potassa, roast them with a certain 
quantity of this base in a carbonated state, fifteen to 
twenty per cent., with a view of accelerating their de- 
composition. 

The phosphates, or rather the double pyrophosphate 
of lime and potassa, may be procured at small expense. 
To this end we treat twenty-four pounds of bones cal- 
cined at a white heat, pulverised and diluted with a 
quantity of water, sufficient to make a very thin pulp, 
with eighteen pounds of sulphuric acid, which we pour 
gradually on the calcined bones, stirring continually. 
Sulphate of lime* and a biphosphate of the same base 
are produced ; then, after having added water to make 
it once more into a pulp, we leave it at rest for two or 
three days, treat it with hot water, and strain through 
a cloth, upon which the sulphate of lime remains ; in 
the liquid is found phosphoric acid and phosphate of 

* As this salt may be employed succeasfuUy in the first phase of 
the culture of the vine, the labor of washing it carefully may be 
dispeosad with, and consequently we are not exposed to the loss of 
the phosphoric acid. 



54 RECAPITULATION OF METHOD. 

lime, or biphosphate ; to tHs, is to be added carbonate 
of potassa, until it acquires a slightly alkaline reaction. 
Nothing remains to be done but to evaporate the wKole 
in a cast-iron vessel, to dry the residuum, and to roast it 
at a dull red heat. The product pulverised, is mingled 
with the silicate, to serve for the development of the fruit. 
To recapitulate, according to the principles upon which 
rests the method of culture which we propose, we must, 

1st. Occupy ourselves in the beginning, exclusively 
with the development of the wood, by incessant care 
given to the young shoots, and by the concurrence of 
composts, having for base the phosphate of lime and 
animal matter, or what comes to the same thing, bones, 
horns, etc., or even guano. 

2d. To endeavor to cause each layer to put forth a 
number of roots sufficient, the trellis, once for all con- 
structed to insure a proper ratio between the power 
of the organs of suction — the roots — and those of respi- 
ration, which are to elaborate the juices — the leaves 
and branches. 

8d. The first two conditions having been realised, to 
give to the plant the potassic salt proper for it, so as 

to retard the growth of wood, and to stimulate that of 

the fruit. 



At) VANTAGES OF THIS CULTURE. 65 

4tli. To repair the loss of potassa sustained by the 
trench, by restoring to it annually, as far as it is pos- 
sible, this base, by the employment of the marc, resi- 
duum of ashes, and plants rich in potassa, such as 
those which are used already in some vineyards of the 
south of France. 

5th. To prune the vine, keeping the wood on a level 
with the stages which are assigned to them. 
- 6th. To remove the buds, observing strictly the 
rules which we have given. 

We think that a few words will now suffice to ex- 
plain the advantages, which this mode of culture has 
over the ordinary plan. 

According to our method, all the operations of cul- 
ture, the vinery once established, are reduced to the 
pruning, disbudding, and lifting, which may be prac- 
tised at the same time. "We therefore dispense with 
the three cultivations which are performed, 

The first, in the month of March ; 

The second, or hoeing, in the month of May ; 

The third, or harrowing, during August. 

Besides, it being unnecessary to employ stakes, we 
are exempted from the labor necessary every year, in 



66 PLANTS CULTIVATED WITH THE VINE. 

some vineyards, for the removal of these and thei* 
replacement, after the -first tillage. 

Moreover, as the trellises are a yard apart, if the soil 
is fertile, we may, without injuring the vine, cultivate 
in the space which separates them, alimentary vege- 
tables, or plants for forage ; — for instance : 

Fall barley^ which not only would not interfere with 
the pruning, but since it may be harvested as the vine 
flowers, would give every facility for disbudding, and 
lifting the young wood. 

Maize, particularly the dwarf variety, seeing tha^; 
this plant, proper space being allowed, would give no 
shade, and would always permit us to lift and tie the 
vines. 

Potatoes and carrots, which would not at any tune 
hinder our movements. 

In fine, why should not the alleys be made into 
sward or artificial meadow, which could be cut with 
the sickle in the month of June, and consequently 
before the disbudding. If we have only a rocky soil, 
even rock itself, nothing prevents us from forming 
ti'enches in it, gathering there the small amount of soil 
to be found in the vicinity, and there causing, by arti- 



BEAINAGE AXD IRRIGATION. 57 

ficial maimres, the shooting of the wood, which is 
afterward developed on the surface of the rocks, and 
there caused to breathe. In this case we must replace 
the wooden posts by hollow iron rods, sealed du'ectly 
into the rock, or into a stone previously sunk into the 
earth. We may thus devote to the cultivation of the 
vine, soils which are completely sterile. 

There is another advantage inherent to our method, 
which we cannot silently pass by. 

Frequently a poor crop is due to an excess of mois- 
ture, or to drought. In such circumstances, by means 
of earthen banks placed before the trenches, it would 
be easy for the vinedresser, in the first case, to direct 
the rain water down the land to run away by the paths : 
in the second, to collect by an opposite arrangement, 
these same waters, that they may be conducted into 
the trenches, there to maintain the degree of humidity 
necessary to vegetation. 

To avoid another danger, which every year menaces 
the vine, that of frost, it would be easy to collect the 
leaves at their fall, and pile them on the foot of each 
stock, constituting the vinery. Here, therefore, in 
terminating the advantages of our method is, 
3^ 



58 RECAPITULATION OF ADVANTAGES. 

let. A considerable reduction in the expenses of 
culture. 

2d. The possibility of usefully employing sterile 
soils, even rocks. 

3d. If the soil is fertile, of devoting, at least, the half 
of it, to the cultivation of alimentary plants, while ob- 
taining the same crop. Surely a very precious advan- 
tage, since, with the least expense, and without increase 
of labor, the poor vinedresser, obliged now to barter 
every year the product of his toil, frequently at the 
very time of vintage, for the aliments necessary for the 
existence of himself and family, would thus find the 
means of procuring these, while preserving his crop of 
grapes; and the rich, that of coming to the assistance 
of unfortunate laborers without sacrificing anything of 
their revenues 



0£EF 




1. Sirloin. 2. Rump. 3. Edge bone. 4. Buttock. 5. Mouse 
buttock. 6. Leg. 7. Thick flank. 8. Veiny piece. 9. Thin flank. 
10. Fore rib: seven ribs. 11. Middle rib: four ribs. 12. Chuck rib: 
two ribs. 13. Brisket. 14. Shoulder, or leg of mutton piece 15 
Clod. 16. Neck, or sticking piece. 17. Shin 18 Cheek 

MUTTON. 




1. Leg. 2. Shoulder. 3. Loin, best end. 4. Loin, chump en^i 
5. Neck, best end. 6. Breast. 7. Neck, scrag end. 

Mote. — A chine is two loins : and a saddle is two loins lujd twc 
tkccks of the best end. 

PORK. 




1. Leg. 2. Hind loin. 3. Fore loin 4. Spare rib. 5 Hand 
^. Belly or sf.\\ng. 



THE 



SMMiI l0iis^imfe's ^00li: 



OB COMPLETB 



GUIDE TO DOMESTIC COOKERY, 



TASTE, COMFORT AND ECONOMY. 



EMBBACING 659 BECEIFTS, 

Pertaining to Household Duties, the Care of Health, Gaiden- 
ing. Flowers. Birds, Education of Children, etc., etc. 



BY MRS. L. G. ABELL, 

AUTBOB OF '^ G1EM8 BT THB WAYSIDE," " WOMAN IN BEB, VASIOUB BEU^TIONB," KFO 



fflffiitl) Valuable ^tJftfon», 62 an iSnfllisI) J^ousefeeeper. 



THIRTY-FIFTH THOUSAND. 

NEW YORK: 
A. 0. MOORE, AGRICULTURAL BOOK PUBLISHER, 

(LATE C. M. BAXTON & CO.) 
No. 140 FULTON STREET. 

1858, 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1852, 

By E. T. young, 

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Southern 
District of New York. 



DOMESTIC GUIDE, OR SKILLFUL HOUSEWIFE, 



1 AriTIDOTEl, , 

2 Alkalies, . 

3 Ai-senic, , 

4 Animal Putridity, Poison from 

6 Arrow Root . 
6. AtmociUiere^ Changes of 

7 Alamode Beef, 

8 Asparagus, 

9 Artichokes, . 
JO Acid Beer, to Restore 

11 Almond Bride Cake, 

12 Apple Custard Pie, 

13 " Padding, a Boiled 

14 " Dumplmg, . 

15 " " Baked 

16 " or Gooseberry Custarc, 

17 •< Custard, 

18 A -n: w Root Blanc Mange, 

19 ApplHS, Preserving . 

20 Apricots, 

21 Api^l^- Butter, 
2'2 Apples, Preserve one year 

23 Apple, Cultivating • 

24 Asparagus, . 

25 Ague in the Face, 

26 Ants, to destroy • 

27 Bruises, . • 

28 Boils, 

29 Bronchitis, . 

30 Bilious Colic, 

31 BoHfl Complaints, Mixture 
3'i Blackberry Syrup, 
S3 Balsam of Honey, 

34 Bleeding ol Wounds, to stop 

35 " at the Nose, 

36 Beef Tea, . 

37 Blanc Mange, Calves Feet 
39 Bread Jelly, 

39 Broth, Chicken, Beef or Veal 

40 Bathing, . 
A\ Boiling, 

42 Baked" Shad, 

43 Boil Shad and other Fish, 

44 Boil Fresh Sali-ion, 

45 Bouilli 

46 Beef, to Roast 

47 " Stew 

48 '■ Fricasee . 

49 B';ef 's Heart, to Roast 

50 Beefcakes, 

51 Bologna Sausages, . 
62 Beef or Veal Pie, . 
W Beets, 



INDEX. 




Page. 




Page 


65 


64 Butternuts, Pickled 


lie 


65 


66 Butter, to Make 


120 


66 


66 Brown Bread, • , 


124 


3m . 60 


67 Bannock, , . . 


125 


67 


69 Buckwheat Cake« 


• 126 


70 


69 Bread, Recipe . . 


123 


96 


60 " Graham . 


138 


106 


6' " Domestic, 


129 


lOS 


6i " Brown . 


139 


117 


63 Buttered Apple Pie, . 


133 


133 


64 Butternut Pie, 


140 


. 139 


65 " Birds Nest" Pudding, 


143 


14^1 


66 Baked Bread Pudding, . 


143 


. 144 


67 " Indian Pudding, 


143 


144 


68 Blanc Mange, 


• 147 


n,, . 146 


69 " " Another, 


147 


149 


70 Borers, Soap for Kilhng 


. 169 


. 149 


71 Broccali, Cultivating 


172 


153 


72 Burns, Cure for • 


. 42 


. 154 


73 Boils, 


. 46 


155 


74 Birds, Canary and other 


173, 


. 155 


173 


179, 180 


169 


75 Bloating in Cattle, . 


189 


. 17! 


7(i Blacking, Liquid 


191, 20« 


43 


77 Butter, to make it Yellow in win- 


139, 197 


ter, ... 


. 191 




78 Bathing, 


193 


44 


79 Bees, 


. 199 


. 45 


90 Beeswax, . • 


202 


45 


SI Black Tongue, . 


• 203 


43 


82 Bleaching, 


205 


61 


83 Blacking, 


206 


. 51 


94 Bedbugs, 


203 


52 


85 Bread Panada, 


. 68 


. 69 

39 

. 67 


86 Beef, to Cure 


302 


87 Can t.e a in the month, . 


47 


68 


8S Cholera Morbus, . , 


43 


. 69 


89 Cough Syrups, . 


• 63 


aJ 70 


90 Copper, . • 


66 


. 73 


91 Consumption . 


. 62 


83 


92 Chicken Jelly, 


6S 


. 85 


93 Custard Egg 


69 


85 


94 Calves' Feet Broth, . 


69 


. 85 


95 Clothing, . 


. 72 


92 


96 Contagion, to Prevent, 


73 


. 88 


97 Clams, 


. 80 


95 


93 Clam Griddles, 


86 


. 90 


99 Codfish Cakes, . 


. 87 


94 


100 Chickens, For Broiling 


87 


. 94 


101 " To Fncasee 


. 91 


95 


102 " Boiled 


92 


96 


103 Calves' Liver, to Fry, , 


9& 


104 


104 Chicken Pie, 


37 





INDEX. 






Page. 




ftf* 


106 Chowder, to Make 


. 98 


167 Dfafness, • 


44 


106 Codfish, to Boil 


9b 


16iDiopsy, , • 


• a 


.07 •• Toast . 


. 99 


169 Dysentery, . 


49.61 


108 " Buttered 


99 


170 Diarrhea 


. 49 


109 Carrots, . 


. 103 


171 Dry Mortification, • 


69 


110 Cabbage, 


103 


172 Diseases of Debility, 


f3 


. 1 " Pickled . 


112 


173 Duck or Rabbit, to BoJ, 


89 


'.12 Cauliflower, 


112 


174 Dry Beans, • 


107 


113 " Pickled 


. Ill 


175 Dry Green Com, 


. 107 


114 Gold Slaw, . 


109 


176 Dandelions, . . • 


108 


115 Cucumbers, , 


iOe no 


177 Dutch Cheese, . 


.23 


116 Cherries, Pickled . 


111 


173 Dough Nuts, 


137 


117 Chopped Cabbage, Pickle 


. 113 


179 Dried Apple Pie, 


137 


- S Catchups, . 


114, 115 


ISO Dry Cherries and Plums, 


154 


119 Coffee, . 


. lis 


131 Dinner, Regulations 


166, 167 


IL'O Chocolate, 


119 


182 Domestics, Treatment of • 


163 


121 Cocoa, 


119 


183 Djihhas, . 


. 165 


122 Cheese, Making. 


21, 122 


134 Discontent, . 


20 


123 Crumpets, * . 


128 


185 Dress, Moral Effects of 


a 


124 Court Cake, 


. 130 


186 Dying, Recipes for 182, 183, 


134, 


125 Cup Calce, . 


131 




185, 186 


126 Cookies, . 


131, 135 


187 Dogs, to Prevent Being Mad, 


. 203 


127 Cocoanut Cakes, 


133 






128 Crullers, . 


. 136 


183 Elixer Froprietatis. 


60 


129 " Plain 


136 


189 Eye Water, 


. 63 


130 Currant Pie, 


• 138 


190 Erysipelas,, . 


69 


131 Cherry Pie, . 


138 


191 Exercise, 


. 72 


132 Cocoanut Pie 


. 139 


192 Eye Sight, to Preserve 


73 


133 Custard Pie, Plain . 


140 


193 Eggs, Preserving 


99 


134 Cream Almond Pudding, 


. 141 


194 " To Boil 


100 


135 Charlotte De Ruse, . 


146 


195 " To Fry 


. 100 


136 Cold Custard, 


. 150 


196 " Poached 


100 


137 Crab Apples, Preserving 


153 


197 " Scrambled 


• 100 


133 Citrons, Preserving 


153 


198 " Pickled 


101 


139 Carving, Directions for 


169 


199 Egg Plant, 


. 106 


140 Cooks, Observations for 


161 


200 East India Pickle, • 


113 


141 Cuttings of Slips, . 


165 


201 Egg Pudding, 


. 140 


142 Callas, 


157 


202 English Plum Pudding, 


142 


143 Currant, Cultivating 


170 


203 Egg Plums, Preserving Whole 152 


144 Celery, " 


109, J71 


204 " Plant, Cultivating 


171 


145 Cress or Pepper gras^ 


171 


205 Education, 


• 23 


'46 Cucumber, " 


• 172 


206 " Religious 


27 


147 Cauhflower, " 


172 


W Eldest Child, Influence • 


. 24 


143 Cheerfulness 


. 22 


>:t3 Excoriations, 


S8 


149 Conduct, General Rules of 


29 


209 " and Sores, 


. 43 


150 Chilblains, 


. 39 


210 Earache, 


46 


151 Corns, 


39 


211 Earthen Ware, to Temper, 


200 


?62 Chapped Lips and Hands, 


. 44 


212 Eggs, Male and Female 


303 


153 Catarrh in the Head, 


45 






i 54 Croup, 


. 46 


213 FoREiop? Substances in the throat. 58 


155 Court Plaster, 


190 


214 Fresh Air, 


. 71 


156 Cements, . • 194, 


195, 199 


215 Friction 


71 


157 Crows, to Destroy 


194 


216 Fowls, Choice of 


. 81 


158 Cement, Fireproof 


. 196 


217 Fish, 


81 


159 Choked Animals, to Relieve 


198 


213 French Rolls, 


91 


160 Cough in Horses, 


. 193 


219 Fresh Meat Balls, 


95 


161 Candied Peppermint and Lemon | 


220 " " Griddles, . 


95 


for Colds, 


. 201 


221 " Fisher Eels, to Cook 


98 


162 Cement, Fire and WaterprooT 


20] , 203 


222 Fried Cucumbers, 


103 


163 Clothes, Faded . 


. 204 


223 Fritters, Plain 


12fl 


164 " to Clean . 


205 


224 " Apples, Excellent, 


. 126 


165 Composition for Houses, 


. 206 


225 '• Cream 


. 12a 


166 Cologne Water. 


203 


226 Fruit Cake, . 


I3f 



IS7 French Loaf, 

228 Fried Cake, Excellent, 
129 Flour Pudding . 

230 Flummery, . 

231 Floating Island, 

232 Frosted Fruit, 

233 Fruit Trees, 

234 Forgiveness, 

235 Felon, 

236 Fowls, 

237 Fruit Spots, 

233 Frost, Remedy for . 



S39 Godfrey's Cordial, 

240 Gcbo'e and Ducks, to Roast . 

241 Green Peas, 

242 " Beans, Pickle 

243 Ginger Beer, 

244 Green Com Pudding, 

245 Grown Flour, Bread of 

246 .Griddle Cakes, 

247 Ginger Bread, Sponge, 
243 " " Soa . 

249 Ginger Nuts, 

250 Ginger Bread, Baker's 

251 " " Fruit 

252 Green Apple Pie, 

253 Garden Shrubs, Flowers and 
354 Geraniujns, 

255 Garden Roses, 

256 Gratitude, 

257 Grease, to Remove from Silk, etc. 189 
253 " " from Books 

259 " Spots, 

260 Gaps in Chickens, 

261 Grease from Boards, 
«6-2 Gold, to Clean . 
263 Gloves, to Clean 
464 Glazed Cloth, to Sew . 

265 Hydrophobia, . 

266 Healing Salve, . . 

267 Herbs, 

268 Hair, 

269 House Keepers, Hints for 

270 Ham, to Broil 

271 " to Fry 

272 " to Boil 

273 " Sandwiches . 

274 Head Cheese, 

275 Hot Slaw, • 

276 Higdora, • 

277 Hirvest Drink, 
273 Hastv Pudding, . 
279 Hom'iny, 
2S0 Hops, to Keep, 
281 Hot Rolls, . 
232 Hoe Cake, 
?83 Honey Cake, 
234 " Suckle, . 
385 Home, Happy . 
286 Household, Order of 
137 HiCknps, 



INDEX. 


IX 


Page. 




Pafft 


. 130 


288 Hens, Management of 


. 181 


136 


2S9 Hams, to Keep 


]»4 


. 140 


290 Honey Water, to make 


n^ 


147 






. 149 


291 Itch, 


41,61 


155 


292 Inflammatory Diseases, 


33 


. 168 


293 Indian Griddles, 


124 


17 


294 " Pound Cake, 


138 


42 


295 Ice Creams, 


144 


202 


296 Industry, 


. 15 


. 206 


297 " and Energy 


22 


206 


293 Infants, Training 


. 34 




299 " Nursing 


35 


. 53 


300 " Temper 


39 


89 


301 Ink, Indelible 


189 


. 105 


302 " Marking 


139 


112 


303 " Powder , 


. 191 


116 


304 " to Prevent Freezing 


191 


123 


305 " " Moulding 


. 191 


. 125 


306 " Making 


194 


127 


307 " Black 


• 200 


134 


308 " Red 


200 


134 


309 " From Linen to Remove 


• 207 


134 


310 " Spots, . 


197 


134 


311 Ice, to Prevent Accidents from 


195 


135 


312 " Vaults, . 


195 


133 


3>3 Iron Ware, to Temper . 


. 198 


. 164 






167 


314 Johnny Cake, Splendid, 


125 


167 


315 


• 129 


20 


316 Jumbles, 


132 


■C. 189 


317 Jelly Cake, 


. 135 


194 


313 " From Feet, 


J'46 


197 
197 
199 


319 Jellies Preserving 


154 


320 Kisses, 


133 


202 


321 Kindness, 


20 


204 






207 


322 Lunar Caustic, 


66 




323 Lead, 


57 


44 


324 Lemonade, Hot 


70 


61 


325 Lobsters and Crabs 


86 


64 


326 " to Dress Cold 


S3 


74 


327 Leg of Lamb, Mutton or Veal to 


75 


Boil . 


. 95 


93 


323 Lima Beans, 


107 


87 


329 Lettuce, • 


109 


. 93 


330 Lemonade, . 


117 


91 


331 Lemon Peel, to Preserve 


117 


. 91 


332 Light Cake, Bake in Cups, 


132 


109 


333 Lemon Pie, 


136 


• 113 


334 " Cream, 


14& 


117 


335 " Jelly, 


147 


123 


336 Locusts, 


165 


123 


337 Lettuce, Cultivating 


172 


125 


333 Little Things, 


18 


127 


339 Lustre for Silver Plate, • 


189 


• 127 


340 Leak, to Stop 


206 


133 


341 Lemon Juice, to Keep . 


207 


. 167 






18 


342 Mumps, . . 


4S 


. 22 


343 Measels, . 


47,62 


T' 


344 Mushrooms, 


67.108 



INDEX 





Page. 




^ 


!« Milk PoTTldf «, . . . 


67 


405 Orens to Temper, . 


m 


frM Meats, Choice of . 


60 


406 oa trora Flowers, to KxtrMt 


Ml 


147 Mock Duck, • , 


ei 






34S " Turtle Soap 


92 


407 PxocD Fleib, . . 


41 


349 Maccaroni Soup, . . 


02 


408 Paragoric, 


M 


SoO Mutton Chop*, 


90 


409 Poisons, . • 


M,«0 


851 Melons, . . 


110 


410 Powdered Glass, 


ft7 


Sb-i Maainoes, Pickle 


112 


411 Poisonous Fish, 


M 


353 Musbroam Catckap, 


114 


412 Purulent of Opthalmia, 


M 


354 Molasses Beer, 


117 


413 Panada, 


68 


855 .Molasses, to Make . 


120 


414 " Bread . • 


68 


356 Macaroni, . . 


122 


415 Poultry, . 


64 


167 Mock Oysten 


127 


416 Pork, to Roast . 


68 


&dS Mutlins, . . 


130 


417 " to Fry 


M 


359 Minced Pie, 


137 


418 Pig, to Roast . ( 


88 


360 Marmalades, PreserriBf 


164 


419 Pork Steak, 


M 


361 Monthly Roses 


167 


420 " Stew, . . 


U 


362 Mind, Training 

363 " Youthlul 


lA 


421 Pea Soup, . 


M 


17 


422 Pot Pie, to Make 


96 


364 Mildness, . 


31 


423 Pigeons, to Cook . 


9t 


365 Morals, Franklin's Code 


26 


424 PoUtoes, . • 


101 


366 Maxims for Parent* and Teachen. 36 


425 " Sweet 


103 


367 " Nursery . 


38 


428 Parsnips, • . 


102 


308 Mortification, . 


41 


427 Pickles, 


116 


369 Mildew from Linen, 


189 


428 Pepper, 


116 


370 Mice, Antidote against . 


18B 


429 Peaches, Pickled 


111 


371 Milk, to Preserve . 


191 


430 Parsley, Pickle, 


lis 


37-2 Milking, 


196 


431 Pudding Catchup^ • 


116 


373 Moulding in Bookl, etc. 


301 


432 Pound Cake, 


181 


374 Moths, to Destroy 


3©7 


433 Plum Cake, rich, . 


131 


375 Musquitoea, 


308 


434 Plum Cake, 


136 






435 Pumpkin Pie, 


139 


376 NuRsiPfo THE Sick, 


64 


436 Potatoe Pie, 


139 


377 Nasturtions. Pickle , 


112 


437 " Pudding, 


141 


373 Nelsons Patent Opaque Gelatine, 149 


438 Plum Pudding . 


141 


379 Nasturtions, Cultivating 


172 


4.39 Putf Pud<ling, 


141 


380 Negligence, 


10 


440 Plum and Cherry Charlotte 


144 






441 Pears, Preserving, . 


161 


!iSl Opodeldoc . , 


49 


442 Peaches, " 


161 


iSO Ointment for Inflamed Eyes, 


£4 


443 Plums, «• 


169 


3S3 Opium, . 


67 


444 Pine Apples, " 


163 


334 Oysters, to Keep 


82 


445 Pumpkins, " , 


163 


335 " to Fry 


86 


446 Peaches, for Tea, . 


166 


336 " Patties, 


86 


447 Pears, 


166 


337 " Stewed 


99 


41S Practical Hints, 


166 


388 " Pickled 


114 


449 Passion Flower, 


167 


389 Omelet, . 


100 


450 Peach, Cultivating 


169 


390 " Bread 


10] 


451 Pear, 


170 


391 Onions, . 


104 


452 Plum, " 


170 


392 " Pickled 


112 


453 Punctuality, 


16 


393 Orangeade, 


117 


454 Patience, 


17 


394 Oyster Corn Cakes, 


127 


455 Politeness, 


31 


395 Orange or Lemon I^e, 


140 


456 Parental Commands, 


33 


396 " Puddmg, 


142 


457 " Example, 


27 


W •■ Cream, 


145 


458 Practical Thoughts, 


36 


398 *• Syrup, 


156 


459 Parents, Hints to 


96 


399 Oyster, Vegetable Cultivation 


172 


460 Polypus, 


A} 


400 Obedience, 


27 


461 Paint, White, 


190 


401 Oil, Rancid 


189 


462 Painting Houses, 


193 


402 Onions, Anti-Magnetic prop* 




463 Paper, Mulberry Leaf 


193 


ties of 


192 


464 Putty, to Remove 


195 


403 Oil of Pumpkiir Seed, 


195 


465 Poultry^ . 


197 


i04 Oil of Flowers. 


196 


466 Paint, to Clean. 


19f 



467 Pouon, Remedy foi 

MS Preservation of the Dead, 

469 Qui!*8T, 

470 Queen's Cakfe, 

471 Quince Pudding, 

472 Quinces, Preserving 

473 Quince, Cultivating 
174 Quills, 



476 Roberts' Welsh Medicamentum, 

476 Rheumatic Tincture, 

477 Ring Worm of the Scalp, 

478 Rice Gruel, 

479 Rules to Promote Health 

480 Rules and Suggestions, 
431 Roasting, 
482 Rice Balls, 
4S3 Ruta Baga, 
484 Radishes, • 
4S5 Radish Pols, Pickle, 

486 Root Beer, 

487 R(!cipes, Miscellaneous, . 

488 Rice, Boiling, 

489 Rhubarb Pie, . 

490 Red Sugar Beet Pie, 

491 Rice Pudding, Plain 

492 " Boiled 

493 " Without Eggs, 

494 Rice, Boiled Whole, 

495 Raspberry Jam, Preserve, 

496 " Cultivating, 

497 Rhubarb " 
493 Resolution, 

499 Reproof, 

500 Reputation, 

501 Rules, 

o02 " Additional 
503 Ring Worms, • 
604 Rickets, . 
603 Ring Worm and Scald Head, 

506 Rheumatism, 

507 Rabbits, 
503 Razors, to Sharpen 
609 Rhubarb Plant, 
519 Raspberry Leaves 
511 Pcoaches 

612 Rust, to Prevent in Iron 

613 Rats, from Grain 

614 Stiff Joints, • 
515 Sore Throat, Putrid 

518 " " Common 
617 Spinal Affections, 

519 Seidlitz Powders, 
519 Sorla Water, 
620 S> rup for the Blood, 
521 Salt Petre, 
622 Snake, Bite of 
823 Scarlet Fever, 
524 Small Pox, 
625 Sago, 
526 Smoked Salmon, 



Page. 




Pace. 


199 


527 Steak, to Broil 


. 87 


203 


528 Sausages, Fine 


»8 




629 Snipes or Woodcocks, tc Roatt 89 


46 


630 Sausages made in Summer, 


9S 


2,136 


531 Soup, to Make, 


96 


142 


532 Souse, 


97 


150 


633 Sounds and Tongues, 


9S 


170 


534 Summer Squash, 


102 


193 


635 String Beans, . , 


106 




536 Sweet Corn, 


106 


n, 50 


537 Spinach, 


106 


61 


533 Sea Kale, . 


108 


61 


539 Sallads, 


109 


69 


540 Sour Krout, Pickle, 


112 


72 


541 Spruce Beer, • 


116 


82 


542 Small Beer, 


116 


84 


543 Soda Biscuit, 


126 


91 


544 Sponge Cake 


130 


104 


545 Shrewsbury Cake, 


132 


109 


546 Soft Cake in Little Pans, 


132 


112 


547 Scotch Cake, . 


132 


116 


643 Sponge Cake, Simple, 


132 


120 


549 " Genuine, 


135 


123 


650 Sago Pudding, . 


143 


133 


531 Snow Cream, 


145 


139 


552 " Custard, . 


146 


141 


653 Strawberries, Preserve 


155 


142 


554 " for Tea, 


155 


142 


656 Serving Tea, 


160 


143 


556 Succors, 


165 


164 


557 Shrubs, . 


166 


170 


553 Strawberrj', Cultivating 


171 


171 


559 Scandal • 


20 


16 


560 Spare Minutes, 


22 


18 


561 Scolding, , 


23 


23 


662 Sleep, . 


24 


29 


563 Sting, for a 


40 


33 


564 Salt Rheum, . 


41 


40 


565 Stomach, Acid, 


42 


40 


566 Soap, Manufacture of 186 


,187 188 


40 


567 Sun Flower, 


193 


43 


568 Sprains, etc., in Horses, . 


193 


ISO 


669 Soap for Plants, 


195 


192 


570 " Labor Saving 


196 


193 


671 Staggers in Swine, . 


197 


198 


572 Salve, 


200 


199 


£73 Silver, German 


204 


201 


574 Sealing Wax, . 


204 


203 








675 Tooth Ache Pastk 


63 


44 


676 Tincture of Waterbrash, 


dS 


46 


677 Typhus Fever, 


62 


46 


578 Tapioca Jelly, 


69 


47 


679 Toast Water, 


70 


60 


580 Teeth, to Preserve 


74 


60 


531 Turkev, to Roast ° 


89 


62 


682 Tongue, to Boil 


89 


66 


5S3 Tripe, 


97 


53 


584 Turnips, 


103 


61 


585 Tomatoes, 


104 


62 


536 " Pickles 


110 


67 


537 " ratchup . 


114 


85 


588 Tea. - 


119 



xii 


INDEX. 




Page. 




rate 


tao Tea Bncuit, 


1-26 


625 Vinegar, Perry 


iifl 


690 Toast Without Butter, 


1.29 


6-26 Varnish, . 


191 


69] Toast, Milk 


1-29 


627 Vegetables, Effects Qpon Animalf, 193 


6&2 Toreatoe Pies, 


140 


GJ8 Vine, iirape 


195 


693 Tarts, 


140 


629 Varnish lor Shoes, . , 


202 


594 Transparent Lemon Jelly, 


146 






5P5 Table JHlies, 


148 


630 Worms in Children, , 


47 


t'?96 Tapioca Pud.ling, 


148 


631 W^hooping Cough, 


61 


697 Tomatoe Figs, 


156 


63-2 Water Gruel, 


66 


693 " Cultivating, 


17-2 


633 Wine Whey, • 


67 


599 Talents, . 


17 


634 Wet Clothes, 


70 


600 Time, 


18 


635 Winter Squash, 


02 


601 " Value 


19 


636 Walnut Catchup, . 


.14 


602 Temper, UnsuMued 


19 


637 Walfles, 


127 


6;)3 Temper, . 


21 


639 Wafer Cakes, 


123 


604 Truth, 


20 


639 AVarm Loaf for Breakfast, 


130 


605 Time, Improvement of 


25 


640 Wedding Cake, Choice . 


134 


60fi Ticdoloroux, . 


44 


641 Washington Cake, . 


135 


607 Tea Kettles, to Prevent Coating, 


191 


642 White Cup Cake, 


136 


608 Tree, Beech, 


195 


643 Whip Cream, 


145 


609 Tomatoes for Cows, 


196 


644 Water Melons, Preserving 


153 


610 Toads, Benefit of 


197 


645 Warts, 


40 


611 Trap for Rats, • 


203 


646 Wounds, to Slop Bleeding of 


42 


" 




647 Woolen, to Restore Colour of 


189 


612 Vomiting, 


48 


&43 V/afers, 


190 


613 Volatile Linament, 


52 


643 Wounds, . 


190 


614 " Plaster for White Swell 




650 AVhite Washers, . |92. 201 


ings, • 


53 


651 Water, to Purify, . 


194 


615 Vcrmecilli Soup, 


93 


652 Weeds in Walks, 


200 


616 Veal, to Ftoast 


8S 


653 Waterproof Cloth, , 


201 


617 " Cutlet, 


90 


654 Wax, to Remove, 


206 


613 Vegetables, 


101 


655 Wen, to Cure, 


207 


619 Vegetable Oyster, 


107 


656 Waterproof Paste, 


209 


6-20 Vinegar, to Make . 


115 






621 " Whiskey, 


115 


657 Yeast, 


124 


62J " Ciler 


115! 


653 •' Milk 


104 


6'23 " Sug»r 


116 


659 " Potatoe . 


\U 


124 " Honey 


116 








PUBLISHER'S PREFACE 



This work is the production of a highly gifted and di& 
ciplined mind. In it the Authoress gives us the result* 
of fifteen years of careful and extended observation, 
while acting in the twofold character of a Christian mo- 
ther, and an experienced and practical housewife. It is 
in truth, as will be seen at a glance, a treasury of useful 
knowledge, and sound practical wisdom ; a store-house 
of principles and facts, embodying more useful informa- 
tion on the various topics on which it treats, than any 
similar work with which we are acquainted. Its object 
is two-fold, viz : to promote the temporal comfort and 
spiritual interests of families. This object, it aims to 
accomplish by -teaching, in the broadest sense, Thb 
Science of Life. Though not written in the form of a 
regular treatise, the subject is presented in three aspects, 
moral, physical, and economical ; ?.ioral, which relates to 
the religious education and government of children— 
PHYSICAL, which relates to the condition, infirmities, 
wants and management of infants — economical, or the 
art of living, of promoting and preserving health, and ) i 
general the right disposition and regulation of household 
affairs in conformity with the dictates of prudence and 
sound discretion. 

In these several points of view, the subject is invested 
with peculiar interest to parents and heads of families. 
To those whose special duty it is to preside over dom<»» 



r4 publisher's preface. 

tic concerns, the great amount of information given in 
so narrow a compass relative to the healing and culinary 
arts, is invaluable. To make it both a safe and useful 
Family Directory, the ablest medical treatises, and the 
most approved works on Cookery, have been dili- 
gently consulted and compared. While, then, the work 
unfolds and enforces the principles of sound Christian 
morality, it embodies all that is necessary for ordinary 
purposes in a treatise on domestic medicine, and the most 
important and valuable secrets of the culinary art. 

The Authoress, with a sort of careless ease, notes down 
her observations and gives only such plain and cogent 
instructions as sink into the mind by their own weight. 
Nevertheless, the work bears the impress of a strong and 
vigorous mind, if not the stamp of marked originality 
and is replete with valuable hints, sparkling thoughts and 
just sentiments. It is a fact that the most splendid ex 
hibitions of genius are not always the most useful. Thosb 
writings, which like Bacon's Essays, " come home to the 
business and bosoms of men," are destined to produce the 
most beneficial influence, if not to endure the longest. A 
work adapted to the common purposes of life, is of more 
real value than more pompous and eiudite volumes. An 
honest and benevolent mind will be satisfied with being 
in some measure useful, without aspiring to great con- 
spicuity. Such an one will be less anxious to accumu- 
late praise, than to discharge the humble duty assigned 
to hi'm by providence. If our Authoress has supplied 
the public with a valuable Household Directory, in all 
the great duties and concerns of domestic life, she has not 
written in vain, nor will she lose her reward. 

TsE Publisher. 



THE 



SKILFUL HOUSEWIPE^S BOOK 



CHAPTER I. 

MISCELLANEOUS MORAL HINTS ON THE FORMATION 
OF CHARACTER. HABITS, ETC. 



BXCELL ENCE THE R E W A R D F I N D U S T R T . 

Excellence is providentially placed beyond the reach of 
indolence, that success may be the reward of industry, and 
that idleness may be punished with obscurity and disgrace. 

TRAINING OF THE MIND. 

A sound moral discipline, and a well regulated mmd, can 
under God, carry a man through life so that he will not be 
the sport and victim of every change that flits across the 
scene. And it cannot be too anxiously borne in mind, that 
this great attainment is in a remarkable degree under the 
influence of habit. 

Every day that passes, and every step that we take, with- 
out making it the object of earnest attention, renders the ac- 
quirement more difficult and uncertain, until a period al 
.ength arrives when no power exists in the mind capable of 
correcting the disorder which habit has fixed. The frivo- 
'ous mind mpy then continue frivolous to the last, amusing 
itself with trifles, or creating for itself fictions of the fancy, 
no better than dreams. The distorted mind may continue 
to the last eagerly pursuing its speculations, departing fpt- 



16 SKILFUL housewife's BOOK 

flier from the truth ; and the vitiated mind may continue to 
the lastj the slave of its impure and degrading passions 
Such is the power, and such the result of mental habits. 
We cannot determine how many acts of frivolity maj'- con- 
stitute the permanently frivolous mind ; how many trains 
of impure thought, may constitute the corrupted mind ; or 
what degrees of inattention to the diligent culture of the 
powers within may be fatal to our best interests. In early 
hfe, aim at the mastery of the mind ; give earnest attention 
to the trains of thought encouraged, as habits may be thus 
unconsciously formed, the influence of which may be per- 
manent and irremediable, and peril the happiness of life and 
the immortal interests of the soul. 

RESOLUTION. 

There is nothing in man so potential for weal or woe, as 
firmness of purpose. Resolution is almost omnipotent. 
Sheridan was at first timid, and was obliged to sit down in 
the midst of a speech. Confounded, and mortified at the 
cause of his failure, he said one day to a friend, " It is m 
me, and it shall come out." From that moment, he rose, 
and shone, and triumphed in consummate eloquence. 
Here was true moral courage. It was well observed by a 
heathen moralist, that it is not because thinsrs are difficult 
that we dare not undertake them. Be then bold in spirit. 
Indulge no doubts, for doubts are traitors. In the practical 
pursuit of our high aim, let us not lose sight of it in the 
slightest instance ; for it is more by a disregard of small 
THINGS, than by open and flagrant ofl^ences, that men come 
short of excellence. There is always a right and a wrong, 
and if you ever doubt, be sure you take not the wrong. 
Observe this rule, and every experience will be to you a 
means of advancement. 

PUNCTUALITY. 

Method is the very hinge of business; and there is no 
method without punctuality. A tvant of this virtue would 



SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 11 

th(ow the whole world into a state of confusion and disor- 
der. Punctuality is important, because it is not only the 
golden chain of .he universe, hut because it promotes the 
peace, order, good temper, and happiness of a family. The 
want of it not only infringes on necessary duty, but some- 
times excludes it. The calmness of mind which it pro- 
duces is another advantage of punctuality. A disorderly 
person is always in a hurry, and has no time. Punctuality 
gives weight to character, and like other Virtues, it propa- 
gates itself Servants and children will be punctual 
where their leader is so. 

•^ PATIENCE. 

As the bee extracts sweets from the bitterest plants, so 
the patient and resigned spirit derives instruction and even 
happiness from the severest misfortunes and the sorest trials. 

FORGIVENESS. 

A more glorious victory cannot be gained over another 
than this, that when the injury began on his part, the kind- 
ness begins on ours. 

TALENTS. 

Dig them up — bring them to the light — turn them over, 
polish them, and they will give light to the world. You 
know not what you are capable of doing; you cannot sound 
the ocean of thought within you. You must labor, keep at 
it, and dig deep and long before you will begin to realize 
much. Be in-active — mourn because you were not created 
a giant in intellect, and you will die a fool. 

THE YOUTHFUL MIND. 

A Straw will make an impression on the virgin snow, 
but after a time a horse's hoof cannot penetrate it ; so it is 
with the youthful mind. A trifling word may make an 
impression, but after a few years the most powerful appeals 



18 SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 

may cease to influence it. Think of this ye who have the 
training , of the infant mind, and leave such impress-ioiw 
thereon as will be safe to carry amid the follies and tempta 
dons of the world. 

TIME. 

God who is liberal in all other gifts, shows us, by his 
own wise economy, how circumspect we should be in the 
management of our time, for he never gives us two mo- 
ments together. . He only gives us the second when he takea 
away the first, and keeps the third in his own hands, leav- 
ing us in absolute uncertainty whether it shall ever become 

ours or not ! 

REPRO o p , 

Never reprove any one when they are angry. But go 
in the cool of reason, and passion, when all is quiet with- 
in, for then you have the greatest probability of success. 

LITTLE THINGS NO TRIFLES. 

The nerve of a tooth, not as large as the finest cambric 
needle, will sometimes drive a strong man to distraction. 
A musquetoe can make an elephant absolutely mad. The 
coral rock which causes a navy to founder, is the work of 
an insect The warrior that withstood death in a thousand 
forms, may be killed by an insect. The deepest wretched- 
ness often results from a perpetual continuation of petty tri 
als. The formation of character often depends on circum- 
stances apparently the most trivial, an impulse, a casual 
conversation, a chance visit, or something equally unimpor- 
tant, has changed the whole destiny of life, and has resulted 
in virtue or vice — in weal or in woe ! 

HOW TO MAKE HOME HAPPY. 

It is not the imposing majesty of a sumptuous mansion, 
nor the hollow glare of gaudy furniture, nor the obsequi. 
ous attention of servants, that make the blessedness of home 



SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. IS 

No , It is the steady exercise of those holy charities, thai 
soothes our sorrows, and that builds the nest of peace, love, 
and true enjoyment in our bosoms. It is mutual respect and 
attention, a kind consideration of each others feelings, under 
all circumstances — a sympathy in our cares, a regard to our 
interests, the exercise of a patient and forbearing, and for- 
giving temper, that makes home the " only Paradise that 
has survived the fall." And let it never be forgotten, that 
even a smile or a frown may gild with brightness, or over- 
cast with clouds, the whole horizon of that sacred spot — 

HOME. 

• AN UNSUBDUED TEMPER. 

Beware of that being, who indulges in an uncontroled 
temper, if you desire peace and happiness. Many a lofty 
mind and noble genius, has by its influence become the bane 
of friendship, the curse of home, and the dread of soci- 
ety. It destroys the peace of families, poisons the fountains 
of happiness, and dries up the source of every pleasure. 
Beauty, wit, wealth, talents, fame and honor, can never be 
a substitute. This one gem outweighs them all, an amia- 
ble TEMPER. 

THE VALUE OF TIME, 

'* I shall only be idle a minute." A minute ! in this 
time many a noble action has been performed. A minute ! 
when resolutions have been made that have changed the 
after current of life. A minute ! in the space which a tear 
reached the eye of the repentant prodigal. 

NEGLIGENCE. 

There is a carelessness about some young persons that is 
manifest in almost every thing they do. Regardless of the 
future, or the opinions of others, they rush forward in some 
new project, and before they see their error, it is impossible 
to retrace their steps. If they attempt to study, it is done 



20 SKILFUL HOUSEWIFE S BOOK. 

8 ipt;i licially. If they work, it is ofien pei formed unfaith 
fully. When anything- new is presented to their raindSj 
they enter into it with all their hearts, to the neglect of what 
may be of greater importance, and by frequently changing 
their plans and pursuits^ fail of success. Minds capable of 
high efforts — of splendid achievments, of extensive useful- 
ness have been paralyzed by its influence. 

DISCONTENT. 

A man of discontented mind and ungovernable passion?! 
can scarcely find a situation where he will be hap[)y. Give 
him wealth, honor, luxury, ease, and all the comfort which 
earth can afford, still his own irritable spirit, superinduced 
by his own lack of moral and mental culture, will poison all 

TRUTH. 

The heaviest fetter that ever weighed down the limbs of 
a captive, is as the web of the gossamer, compared with the 
pledge of a man of honor. The wall of stone, and the bar 
of iron may be broken, but his plighted word never. 

SCANDAL. 

Those who possess the least inherent purity, are the most 
apt to traduce and vilify others. The slanderer judges af- 
ter the dictates of his own malicious heart, and thus impugns 
the actions, motives, and feelings of others. 

KINDNESS. 

Help others and you relieve yourself. Go out and drive 
ftwaythe cloud from that friend's brow, and you will return 
with a lighter heart. A word may blight the brightest hope ; 

word may revive the dying. A frown may crush a gen- 
tle heart. The smile of love, or forgiveness may relieve 
from torture. 

GRATITUDE . 

Be careful to teach your children gratitude. Lead them to 
acknowledge every favor that they receive; to speak often 



SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 21 

ot their benefactors, and to ask blessings for them. Accua- 
tom them to treat with marked attention their instru 'tors, and 
those who have aided them in the attainment of krowledge 
or piety. Gratitude is one of our first duties to God, ffii 
•hould not be forgotten when due to man. 

TEMPER. 

No trait of character is more valuable than the possessio) 
of a good temper. Home can never be made happy with 
out it. It is like flowers that spring up in our pathway, re 
viving^ and cheering- us. Kind words and looks are the 
outward demonstrations ; patience and forbearance are the 
sentinels within. Study to acquire and retain a sweet tem- 
per. It is more valuable than gold — it captivates more than 
beauty, and to the close of life retains its freshness and power 

POLITENESS. 

Good breeding is both sanctioned and suggested by en- 
lightened reason. Its principles are founded m a love of vir 
lue and a just appreciation of the rights of others. It is by 
discipline and effort that we attain to that elevation of char- 
acter which enables, and inclines us to practice self-denial 
and consult the honor and happiness of others. Let no one 
think it of little consequence whether he has the manners 
of a clown or a gentleman. Politeness is a passport to the 
respect and friendship of the refined and intelligent, and 
wins favor even from the vulgar. It is benevolence and 
kindness carried into the details of life, and throws a charm 
around its most common scenes. Let it be cuhivated, and 
its beauties will daily unfold ; with time and patience the 
leaf of the mulberry tree becomes satin. 

MILDNESS. 

Be always as mild as you can ; honey attracts more fiiei 
than vineoi^ar If you err let it be on the side of gentleness 



2!^ SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 

The nuraan mind is so constituted that it resist? severilT 
and yields to softness. 

SPARE MINUTES. 

Spare minutes are the gold dust of time. Of all the pop 
tions of our life, spare moments are or may be the most 
fruitful of evil. Th-ey are gaps through which temptations 
find the easiest access to our hearts. Let them all be im 
proved with care ; " Sands make the mountains as momenti 
make years." 

THE ORDER OF A HOUSEHOLD. 

To establish order in the household, one of the first thing* 
necessary is to adopt rules for its internal arrangement and 
government. Let there be a fixed time for meals, for wor- 
ship, and retirement. Let punctuality be required from 
each member, and soon the habit will become fixed and 
permanent. This greatly helps to give stability and sym- 
metry to the character, and will save from many a snare. 

INDUSTRY AND ENERGY. 

Resolution, energy, spirit, and courage, with a faithful 
improvement of time, will attain any position and overcome 
any obstacle. An ordinary intellect will, by industry and 
perseverance, often accomplish more than a much superior 
one, deficient in energy and the power of endurance. 

CHEERFULNESS. 

Those who benefit the world by their labors, who heft 
remove a weed and there plant a flower, must be cheerful. 
Amidst the most adverse circumstances there are still rea 
sons for cheerfulness. So long as there are motives to gra 
litude, there is cause for cheerfulness. 

GIVE A FEW MINUTES TO THAT CHILD. 

Few parents realize how much their children may be 
taught at home, by devoting a few minutes to their instruc* 
tion every day. Let the parent make the experiment only 



SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 23 

during the hours which are not spent in schooi. Let him 
make a companion of his child, converse with him, propose 
questions, answer inquiries, communicate facts, explain dif- 
ficulties, the meaning of things, and the reason of things, 
and all in so easy and agreeable maaner that it will be no 
task, but serve to awaken curiosity and interest the mind, 
and he will be astonished at the progress he will make. 

SCOLDING. 

I never knew one who was in the habit of scoldina: able 
to govern a family. What makes people scold? The 
want of self-government. How then can they govern 
others ! Those who govern well are generally calm. They 
are prompt and resolute, but steady and mild. 

T AC Q U I R E A GO OD REPUTATION. 

Endeavor to be, rather than to appear good. Seize the pre 
tent opportunity, and improve it to the utmost in doing your 
duty. Be more ready to commend than blame. If you 
have occasion to reprove, first convince by actual kindness 
that it is your design to do the person good. Be faithful in 
every thing however small. Be honest in . all your 
dealings, and alwaj'^s do to others as you would be done by. 
Let all know that you value your honor, and this may in* 
duce them to value their own. 

parental commands. 

If you wish to be obeyed, be careful to make few com- 
mands, and see that they are obeyed. Run no hazard in 
giving orders that may by any possibility be disobeyed. If 
you make them, let nothing be an excuse for disobedience 

WHAT EDUCATION SHOULD BE. 

The foundation of education should be laid in the know- 
ledij-e and love of God. Education, without moral XRAiisr- 
ING, is like a sword in the hands of a madman. '' Know- 
ledge is power'' foi' good or for evil. See to it then, that 



24 SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 

your children are trained in the principles of religion, hon 
esty, integrity and virtue, in obedience, self-government, 
benevolence and kindness. They need line upon line, pre- 
cept upon precept, and constant watchfulness over faults and 
habits. No schools howev^er well conducted, no colleges 
however high in literary advantages, without this care and 
effort to establish correct principles, and form the character 
to virtue, can be safe for your children. They should be 
taught moreovar, that they must be, under the blessing of 
God, the manufacturers of their own fortunes. Many pa- 
rents toil and labour, and deny themselves the comforts of 
life to hoard up wealth for their children. But fit them to 
take care of themselves, and it will be of more value than 
the wealth of the Indies. The earlier you teach them to 
depend upon their own resources the better. See that their 
morals are pure, the mind cultivated, and the whole nature 
subservient to the laws of God, and it will be of greater val- 
ue than the riches of the world. Train them up to habits 
of industry, economy and virtue, and it will be the best es- 
tate they can have, of which no misfortune can de- 
prive them. 

THE INFLUENCE OF THE ELDEST CHILD 

The eldest child will be a model after which the younger 
members of the family will be fashioned. . The taste, the 
habits, the character of the one, will very likely be copied 
by the others. How great the responsibility of the parent 
in the culture and training then of the eldest child ! 

SLEEP. 

A proper degree of exercise is necessary both for body 
and raind. When nature calls for rest, obey her dictates 
In good health seven or eight hours sleep is generally suf, 
ficient. In sickness sleep is often more valuable than medi- 
cine in restoring the exhausted powers and deranged fun-j- 



SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 25 

tions, and when the patient can sleep it is like the " balm 
♦f Gilead'" to the debilitated frame. 

I M P R O V E r.I R N T OF TIME. 

Do small things, as writing a letter, making a sketch, 
reading a review, &c., in your leisure moments; leaving 
the body of the day to more important affairs. Instead ct 
SAYING much about your employments or wasting time in 
procrastination and dread of them, set yourself quietly, 
promptly, resolutely about your work, and you may save 
hours for the acquisition of some important Art or Science. 
Always have convenient work at hand, that your time may 
be usefully employed during a social call or in moments of 
leisure. Much time and labor will be saved by always 
keeping things in order. Devise methods of expeditmg 
labor, and give to each branch its due importance. There 
is time enough for every work and duty ; if any thing is 
neglected from a supposed want of time the fault is ours. 

franklin's code ofmorals. 

Eat not to fulness — drink not to elevation — speak not 
but what may benefit others or yourself — avoid trifling 
conversation. Let every thing have its place, let each part 
of your business have its time. Resolve to perform what 
you ought — perform without fail what you resolve. Make 
no expense but to do good to others or yourself, wasting 
nothing. Lose no time, be always employed in somethmg 
aseful. Use no deceit, think innocently and justly, and if 
/on speak, speak accordingly. Wrong none by injuries, 
or omitting the benefits which are your duty. Avoid ex- 
:remes, forbear resenting injuries. Suffer no uncleanliness 
in your body, clothes, or habitation. Be not disturbed about 
irifles, or at accidents common or unavoidable. Imitate 
Jesus Christ, 



26 

CHAPTER II. 
PARENTS. 

PRACTICAL THOUGHTS. 

Be yourselves what your children should be. Avoid what 
they should avoid at all times : let your example be a safe 
and unerrinsf o-uide. Are there defects in their character? 
inquire the cause, whether it may not be owing to some de- 
fect or fault in your own character which they have copied. 

MAXIMS FOR PARENTS ft.ND TEACHERS. 

Never give reproof if it can be avoided while the feelings 
of either party are excited. If thn parent or teacher be not 
calm, his influence is diminished, and a bad example is set. 
if the child is much excited or provoked, he will not feel 
the force of argument or rebuke. On the other hand, do 
not defer too long. Seize the first favorable opportunity 
while the circumstances are fresh in memory. Reprove 
each fault as it occurs, and not suffer them to accumulate 
{est the offender be discouraged by the amount. Let your 
reproofs be frequent enough to convince the child that he 
is observed, but not so frequent as to tire. Ne-ver expose a 
fault to others, unless as a last resort.* It blunts a child's fen* 
bibility, it discourages effort, it diminishes confidence in the 
reprover, excites a feeling of triumph in associates, and of 
envy in the offender, rather than a just sense of the fault. 

HINTS FOR PARENTS. 

Never allow a child to be uncourteous and disrespectful, in 
language or behaviour, to yourself or others. Cultivate the 
affections with greater care than you would nurse a house 
plant ; they afford more pleasure in the domestic circle, and 
their frailty demands your utmost attention. Allow no in- 
fluences in your family but those that are gentle and kind. 
Teach your children to respect age and never allow them 



SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 27 

U) speak lightly of religious, or o^ serious things. Never 
be absent yourselves from church, nor suffer your child to be, 
unless for some cause that would prevent week-day occu* 
pations or pleasures. Keep your children employed, and 
they will have less time to contract bad habits ; know 
where they are, and what they are doing, that you may 
guard them from danger. 

RELIGIOUS EDUCATION. 

There is not a blessing of our life, not a joy of our 
hearts, not a pure emotion within our bosoms, or a ray of 
hope shed upon our pathway, but has had its origin in reli- 
gion, and may be traced in all its hallowed, healthful influ- 
ences, to the Bible. With the dawn of childhood then, 
m the earliest days of intelligence, should the mind be 
impressed and stored with religious truth, and nothing 
should be allowed to exclude or efface it. It should be 
taught so early that the mind will never remember when 
it began to learn ; it will then have the character of innate, 
inbred principles incorporated with their very being. 
parental exampll. 
Never forget that the first book children read is their 
parent's example, their daily deportment. If this is forgot- 
ten, you may find in the loss of your domestic peace, that 
your children only know the r-ight path, but still follow 
the wrong. 

obedience. 
• Remember, if you would not have all your instructions 
and councils ineffectual, teach 3'^our children to obey. Gov 
ernment in a family, is the great safeguard of religion and 
morals, and the support of order and source of prosperity 
Nothing has a greater tendency to bring a curse upon a 
family, than the insubordination and disobedience of chil 
dren, and there is no more painful and disgusting sight thaa 
gn unfroverned child. 



28 



SKILFUL HOUSEWIFE S BOOK. 



BEAUTIFUL, YET FEARFUL THOUGHT. 

Childhood is like a mirror catching and reflecting images 
all around it. Remember that an impious, profane, or vul- 
gar thought may operate upon a young heart, like a careless 
spray of water thrown upon polished steel, staining it with 
Tust that no after efTorts can efface. 

NURSERY MAXIMS. 

Remember that children are men and women in miniature, 
and though they should be allowed to act as children, still 
our dealings with them should be manly, and not morose; 
recollect, also, that every look, word, tone and gesture, nay 
even your dress makes an impression. 

Never correct a child on suspicion, or without under- 
standing the whole matter, nor trifle with a child's feelings 
when under discipline. 

Be always mild and cheerful in their presence, commu 
nicative but never extravagant, trifling or vulgar in Ian 
guage or gesture. Never trifle with a child, nor speak be- 
seechingly, when it is doing wrong. Always follow com- 
mands with a close and careful watch, until the thing is 
done, allowing no evasion, and no modification, unless the 
child ask for it, and it be expressly granted. 

Never reprove children severely in company, nor hold 
them up to ridicule, or make light of their failings. 

Never speak in an impatient, fretful manner, if you have 
occasion to find fault. 

Never say to a child, " I dont believe what you say," nor 
£ven express doubts. If you have such feelings, keep them 
o yourself, and wait ; truth will eventually be made plain. 

Never disappoint the confidence a child reposes in you, 
whether it be a thing placed in your care or a promise. 

Always give prompt attention to a child when he speaks, 
go as to prevent repeated calls, and that he may learn to 
give prompt attention when you call him. 



SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 2tJ 

At the table a child should be taug'lit to sit up and behave 
in a becoming manner, not to tease when denied, or to leave 
his chair without asking-. A parent's wish at such a time 
should be a law, from which no appeal should be made. 

Even in sickness, gentle restraint is better for the child 
than, indulgence. 

Never try to impress a child with religious truth when 
\n anger, or talk to him of God, as it will not have the de* 
sired effect. Do It under more favorable circumstances. 

Improve the first ten years of life as the golden opportu- 
nity, which may never return. It is the seed time, and your 
harvest depends upon the seed then sown. 

There should never be two sets of manners, the one for 
home and the other for company, but a gentle behaviour 
should be always required. 

Selfishness that binds the miser in chains, that chills the 
heart, raust never be allowed a place in the family circle. 
Teach the child to share his gifts and pleasures with others, 
to be obliging, kind and benevolent, and the influence of 
such instruction may come back into your own bosom to 
bless your latest hour. 

Dread an insubordinate temper. Deal with it as one of 
the greatest of evils. Let the child feel by your manner, that 
he is not a safe companion for the rest of the family when 
in anger. Allow no one to speak to him at such times, not 
even to answer a question ; take from him books, and what- 
ever he may have, and place him where he shall feel that 
the indulgence of a bad temper shall deprive him of all en 
joyment, and he will soon learn to control it himself 

GKNERAL RULES OF CONDUCT, AND DEMEANOR. 

Propriety of deportment is a happy union of the mora, 
ftnd the graceful, and should be considered in two points o: 
view ; and ought, thetefore, to direct us in our important du 



30 SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 

ties, as well as in our more trifling enjoyments. It is the 
result of a knowledge of one a self, and of respect for the 
riofhts of others. The usages of the world are often the im- 
itations of propriety, ruk if not based on sincerity become 
inconstant in every thing. It is this false politeness, this 
superficial observance of the mere form, that leads people 
to be suspicious of that which is genuine. Truth, benevo- 
lence, and kindness are the soul of genuine politeness ; it ia 
both the efTect and cause of Christian civilization^ and al- 
ways attends upon the effort to do what is right. It is so im- 
portant to every individual, that neither rank, talents, for- 
tune, nor beauty can dispense with it, nor can any thing 
inspire affection like its winning charms. '' Manners" 
says one, "are more important than laws." These touch 
us but here and there, now and then, but manners are what 
vex or soothe us, corrupt or purii"y, exalt or debase, barbar- 
ize or refine, by a constant, steady, uniform, insensible ope- 
ration, like the ajr we breathe in. They give the whole 
form and color to our lives ; according to their quality, they 
AID morals or destroy them. 

To avoid wounding the feelings of others, is the key to 
the secret ; and he who will always regulate his sayings and 
doings by that principle, will rarely violate any of the essen- 
tials of good breeding. Judgment and attention are neces- 
sary to fulfil this precept, for by inadvertance or indiscretion, 
as much pain may be given as by designed malevolence. 

Civilities always merit acknowledgment. If you have 
been received with respect and kindness when away from 
home, you owe it to those who have entertained you, to in- 
form them of your safe return, and to thank them for their 
kindness and hospitality. Accommodate yourself to every 
grade of persons, and every class of society ; but never 
Bacrifice principles. Abhor everything profane, licentious, 
intemperate and vulgar. The only way to deal with the 



SKILFUL housewife's BOOK- 31 

courteous, is to be courteous ; it is the best way, also, to deal 
with the rude. Contempt and haughtiness are never wise 
and never politic. It is plain at a glance that arrogance 
and incivility are never the test of good breeding; they are 
utterly inconsistent with true dignity, A man's pride 
should only dwell in his principlf>s, and not in his demean- 
or ; he should be above everything which may be unworthy 
of his nature, and above doing any thing which shall lessen 
his dignity, or impair his honor. Civility teaches us to 
treat with proportionate respect every body according as 
their rank requires, and their merit demands ; but nothing 
is more tedious than mere ceremony. 

The possession and display of the easiest moral virtues 
will secure a more enviable popularity than the exhibition 
of the greatest talents without them. The ability to employ 
power well is the best sort of power, therefore taste in con- 
versation is worth more than talent. Avoid opposition and 
argument in conversation, and be as willing^ to hear as to 
speak, and never interrupt the one speaking, nor affect to 
help him through with his discourse. Notice what is un- 
pleasant in others, and avoid it ; what gives you pleasure, and 
practice it ; adopting the golden rule to all the minor af- 
fairs of life. There are those who in society are consider- 
ate, amiable, and really polite, who in private and at home 
are morose, rough, and ill-natured. This fault is much too 
common, and is one of the greatest inconsistencies of human 
nature. From the world they procure but a few moments' 
pleasure ; but home is to yield the happiness of a whole life. 
The forms and ceremonies of politeness may be dispensed 
with m a measure, in the relaxations and intimacies of ones 
own fireside, but kind attentions never. 

The duties of hospitality are of frequent occurrence and 
should never be omitted, even though fatiguing, and some* 
limes troublesome. Those who are vvilling to dispense 



5!c, -SKILFUL HOUSEWIFE S BOOK. 

with thrrm give occasion for unfavorable remarki, and 
acquire the reputation of a want of delicacy, of a correci 
EDUCATION, and a destitution of those kl\dly feelings, 
which are the charm of society, and also fail in one of the 
loveliest of Christian duties. Selfishness and pride are the 
two greatest obstacles in the way of a correct deportment , 
the former must be banished from social life as utterly 
inconsistent with the practice of those virtues and graces 
that adorn the human character, and elevate man to his true 
position ; the latter never finds a place in the manners of 
the truly well-bred, and is as much at variance with the 
laws of ETiQUET as of religion. 

Extract from Washington's Code of Manners, written in 
his early youth — " Every action in company ought to be 
with some sign of respect to those present. Be no flatterer, 
neither play with any one that delights not to be played 
with. Read no papers, letters, or books in company. Come 
not near the papers or books of another so as to read them, 
Look not over another when he is writing. Let your 
countenance be cheerful, but in serious matters be grave 
Show not yourself glad at another's misfortunes. Let yoiii 
discourse with others on matters of business be short. It it 
good manners to let others speak first. Strive not with 
your superiors in argument, but be modest. When a man 
does all he can, do not blame him, though he succeeds nol 
well. Take admonitions thankfully. Be not hasty to be 
lieve flying reports to the injury of another. In youf 
dress be modest, and consult your condition. Play not 
the peacock, looking vainly at yourself It is better 
to be alone than in bad company. Let you. conversation 
be without malice or envy. Urge not your friend to dis- 
cover a secret. Break not a jest where none take pleasure 
in mirth. Speak not injurious words either in jest or 
larnest. Gaze not on the blemishes of olliers. Whei'i 



SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 33 

another speaks be attentive. Be not apt to relate news 
Be not ci^rious to know the affairs of others. Speak not 
evil of the absent. . When you speak of God, let it be with 
reverence. Labor to keep alive that spark of heavenly tire 
called conscience." 

ADDITIONAL RULES. 

Avoid in company all unnecessary noise or motion. Lean 
not your chair against the wall or furniture. Spit not upon 
the carpet or floor. Neither whistle or hum tunes in com 
pany, nor drum with your feet or fingers. There should 
be a steady resistance of every thing vulgar, and if the 
customs of society are such as to induce a violation of prin- 
ciple, or have an unfavorable influence on character, even 
remotely, it is then a duty to refuse politely, but resolutely, 
' all participations in such practices or customs. Never fear 
to be singular in doing right, as this is one of the fiist 
essentials of good breeding. 

MORAL EFFECTS OF DRESS PROPRIETY. 

A Wise man in giving advice to his students enforces the 
importance of personal neatness and suitable attention to 
dress, as having an important influence upon the taste and 
habits of the mind. It is no less important in this particu- 
lar than in producing self-respect, and in securing th^ 
respect of others. Attention to the minor articles of attire, 
far more than its richness and elegance, aflect the mind 
favorably. No one should be wholly inattentive to his 
personal appearance; and none should be so devoted to 
dress and fashion as to betray a weakness of intellect, or 
the want of a well balanced mind. " She who spends too 
much time in consulting her mirror, will assuredly spend 
too little in looking into her own heart, and she may safely 
salculate that the most finished external adorning will fail 
to please when the inward ornaments of intellectual and 
moral worth are neglected and forgotten." Still as a fine 



34 SKILFUL HOUSEWIFE S BOOK. 

picture derives additional beauty from judicious framing-, 
so the charms of an accomplished woman become enhanced 
by a proper regard to her attire ; but the slave of fashion is 
perhaps one of the most pitiable objects in creation ; and 
nothing can be more absurd than the adoption of every new 
style of dress the moment it makes its appearance. 

The true standard of propriety is a medium one — neither 
adopt every rising novelty of the day, nor reject a consistant 
and becoming compliance with those alterations and changes 
which reflection and judgment pronounce desirable. Neat- 
ness, taste, and simplicity should be the characteristics of 
attire, which may always be adapted to the station in life. 
Due attention should also be paid to the seasons, and adap- 
tation to the weather, as it betokens a culpable ignorance as 
well as egreg'ous folly, to be unseasonably attired. When 
the REAL or SUPPOSED demands of fashion involve a sacrifice 
of health, or endanger life, let the mandate be sternly and 
RIGOROUSLY Fesisted and contemned. 

TRAINING OF INFANTS PROTECTION FROM COLD, ETC. 

The exposure of infants to a low temperature, whether 
from deficient or improper clothing, will prove injurious to 
them. It has been ascertained that out of one hundred 
children born in winter, sixty-six die in the first month of 
life, but of one hundred born in summer, only seventeen die 
during the first month. Also, that the mortality ie greater 
among children born in northern, than in southern climates. 
From these facts it is evident that infants should be furnished 
with a greater amount of clothing than adults. Nothinor is 
more common, however, than to see children with their arms, 
necks, and upper portions of the chest, baie. When we 
reflect on the close sympathy between the skin and internal 
organs of the body, we may easily decide on the probable 
cause of disease in the Lver, lungs, stomach, bowels, and 
brain ; and hence croup catarrh, fever, diarrhea, cholera. 



SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 35 

and convulsions, are but parts only of that wide outlet to 
infant life which deficient clothing creates. Some justify 
^his course with the impression that it inures to cold 
and makes them hardy. This may be the case with those 
who have stamina sufficient to survive the experiment, but 
before the system is thus invigorated the child may be carried 
off by some inflammatory affection produced by such 
exposure. 

INFANT NURSING. 

To set a child quite upright before the end of the firsi 
month is hurtful. Afterwards it may be done by degrees, 
Rubbing a child all over with the warm hand takes off the 
Fcurf and makes the blood circulate. Rubbing the ankle- 
bones and inside the knees will strengthen those parts. 

POSITION. 

A nurse should keep the child in her arms as little as 
possible, lest the legs should be cramped and the toes turn 
inward. The oftener the posture is changed the better ; do 
not let it lie always on one side, nor let it lie too long even 
if it is quiet. 

EXERCISE. 

By slow degrees the infant should be accustomed to ex- 
ercise, both within doors and in the open air ; but it should 
not be moved about much after feeding ; it is apt to sicken. 
Exercise must be gentle, not jolting on the knee. 

PREVENT DISTORTION. 

Tossing a child and exercising it in the open air in fine 
weather, is of great service. In cities, especially, children 
must not be kept in hot rooms, but must have as much air as 
•possible. Want of exercise is the cause of rickets, large 
heads, weak joints, a contracted breast, and diseased lungs, 
besides a numerous train of other evils. 

Infants should by imperceptible degrees be inured to a 
50ol and then to a cold bath. Sudden transitions are 



36 SKILFUL HOUSEWIFE'S BOOK. 

dangerous. All attempts to render them tiardy must b« 
made by gradual steps. But when they become accustomed 
to a hardy system it then must be adhered to. 

CLE ANLINESS. 

The child's skin must be kept perfectly clean, by washing 
its limbs morning and evening, and likewise its neck and 
ears, beginning with warm water, and by degrees it will 
not only bear but like to be washed in cold water. Aftei 
carefully drying the whole body, head, and limbs, anothei 
soft cloth, a little warm, should be used gently, to take al 
the dampness from the folds and fleshy parts. If the skin is 
chafed, the nursery powder must be dusted on. The utmost 
tenderness is necessary in drying the head, and no binding 
should be made close about it. Squeezing the head or 
combing it roughly may cause frightful diseases and even 
the loss of reason. A small soft brush lightly applied is 
safer than a comb. Clean clothes every morning will 
tend greatly to a child's health and comfort. The scurf 
that sometimes appears on the head should be oiled at night, 
and well washed with soap and water in the morning, and 
gently combed. 

DRESS. 

A shirt, a breadth of flannel open in front, with a waist to 
tie before, longer than the feet, to wrap them in, a petticoat 
of flannel, with a waist to tie behind ; over this put a robe oi 
frock, fastened behind. Caps may be worn one, two, oi 
three months, but not longer. The dress for night should 
be as for the day, except the petticoat is left cff, and nighl 
gown worn. 

THE OPERATION OF DRESSING. 

The most tender care should be observed in moving the 
infant and turning it, that it shall not feel fatigue. The 
clothes should all be tied on, and so loose that two fingers 
may be inserted between the clothes and body. Bandages 



1 



SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 37 

are forbidden. Idiotism and deformity are often owing to 
tight bandages. 

SLEEP. 

Infants cannot sleep too long ; it is well when they can 
enjoy a calm and long-continued rest, of which they should 
by no means be deprived^ as this is the greatest support 
granted them by nature. A child lives comparatively much 
faster than an adult ; its blood flows more rapidly, and sleep 
promotes more uniform circulation, and facilitates digestion, 
while a horizontal position is favorable to growth and de- 
velopment. Still, sleep should be proportioned to the age. 
4fter six months, the time of sleep can be regulated. An 
mfant should always sleep the whole night in preference 
io the day, and, as it grows older, a few hours morning and 
afternoon ; and, after a while, to sleep after dinner will be 
sufficient. After a child is four or five years old, its time 
of sleep may be shortened one hour every succeeding year, 
60 that a child of seven will not require to sleep more thaa 
eight or nine hours. 

WAKING SUDDENLY. 

To awaken a child with a noise, or in an impetuous man- 
ner, is extremely injudicious and hurtful ; nor should it be 
carried from a dark room into a glaring light, for the sud- 
den impression of light debilitates the organs of vision, and 
lays a foundation for weak eyes from early infancy. 

RESTLESSNESS AT NIGHT. 

An infant is sometimes restless at night ; this is generally 
>wing either to cramming it with too much food, tight 
night-clothes, or being over-heated with too many blankets, 
or It may have slept too much in the day time. 

H I c K u p s . 

These generally arise from acidity in the stomach, and 
may be remedied by a little prepared chalk given in a little 
syrup or gruel. If very severe, the stomach should be rub- 



55 SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 

bed with opodeldoc or liniment, with a little laudanum 
added. 

EXCORIATIONS. 

If children are not kept perfectly dry, or, if theil 
clothes are dried too long and become rough, they suffer 
much, and often they b?come perfectly raw about the 
thighs. When this is the case, the citron or yellow oint- 
ment will heal very soon. But " prevention " is far 
better than " cure ;" great care should therefore be 
taken that suffering of this kind is not caused by inatten- 
tion or carelessness. 

HABITS OF INFANTS. 

There should be pains taken to form such habits in 
infancy as will be most for the child's benefit, and least 
trouble to those who have the care of them, it is 
fatiguing and irksome to be obliged either to bear the 
fretfulness and screams of a child, or to walk the room 
continually to pacify it. There is no habit sooner 
learned than that of being carried in the arms ; it needs 
only be practised a few times, and it becomes necessary 
for the enjoyment of quiet and peace, flaving a light 
at night is also bad, it must soon be dispensed with, or it 
will become necessary to continue it. Keeping a child 
up in the evening is also injudicious. Let it be early 
prepared for rest, and you will have the benefit of a 
quiet evening, and your child of needful sleep and a well 
formed habit. 

WALKIN G . 

Let a child gain strength in the natural use of its 

I imbs, not urging it beyond its strength to make efforts 

o walk. Let it practise creeping, occasionally holding 

t up to learn the use of the feet. But by no means 

)ress it to go alone too soon. 1 have seen children have 

a natural sfoop that could never be overcome in conse 



SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 39 

qiience of walking too soon, before there was sufficient 
strength to support the v/eight. 

TEMPER. 

The atmosphere in which an infant should live, should 
be that of gentleness. Nothing harsh ov loud should 
ever fall upon the delicate ear of the infant. Nothing 
unkind or unfeeling should be made to vibrate upon its 
susceptible heart. It should hear no other tones than 
those of love and tenderness, and should feel no other 
influences than those of the deepest affection. Its up- 
ward turned eye is quick to discover the meaning of the 
look and manner, and its emotions are taking their hue 
from the light under which it lives and breathes. When 
symptoms of temper in the child are betrayed, let no 
exciting cause perpetuate the difficulty, but endeavor to 
cha^age the current of thought by changing its place, or 
placing before the eye something to please, and calm the 
ruffl*»d waters of its narrow but treasured life. 



CHAPTER m. 

bxMr^..E AND SAFE REMEDIES FOR COMMON DISEASES AND 

ACCIDENTS. 

CHILBLAINS. 

These sores are caused by frost, and are very trouble- 
some, and often painful. Where the skin is not broken, 
oathe the part in strong alum water. This will cure, if 
continued a week or two. 

BLEEDING AT THE NOSE. 

Grate dried salt beef, and take two or three pinches as 
snuflf. This is said always to cure. Other remedies will 
oftei^i suppress it — such as the following ; Raise the left 
um, and keep it up some time. Bathe the back of the 



40 SKILFUL HOUSEWIFE S BOOK. 

head and neck in cold water. Tie a thread very tight 
around the little finger. 

WARTS. 

Wet them with tobacco juice, and rub them with 
chalk. Another. — Rub them with fresh beef every day 
until they begin to disappear. This last is simple and 
eifectual. 

CORNS. 

Take half an ounce of verdigris, two ounces of bees- 
wax, two ounces of ammonia ; melt the two last ingredi- 
ents together, and just before they are cold, add the ver- 
digris. Spread it on small pieces of linen, and apply it, 
after paring the corn. This has cured inveterate corns. 

FOR A STING. 

Bind on the place a thick plaster of common salt, or 
saleratus moistened — it will soon extract the venom. 

RING WORMS. 

Take tobacco and boil it well — add vinegar and lye, 
and wash often. Gunpowder and vinegar is also good. 
Another ; Lay a penny in a spoonful of vinegar, and, 
after standing a few hours, wash it frequently. This 
will cure. 

RICKETS. 

Keep the bowels regular — bathe the body in tepid 
salt and water. Friction, air, exercise, and nutricious 
diet are important. 

FOR RINGWORM AND SCALD HEAD. 

Give cream of tartar and sulphur, sufficient to act upon 
the bowels. Wash the head with fine soap and water, 
and apply the citron o-r yellow ointment once a day, 
Also simmer a decoction of elder with cream, until an 
ointment is formed, and apply daily — washing as above 
and taking the cream of tartar and sulphur. 



SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 41 

Another; Take of sulphate of potash, recently pre- 
pared, three drachms j Spanish white soap one drachm 
and a half; limewater seven ounces and a half; spirits 
of wine two drachms. Mix,- by shaking well in a phial. 
Bathe the head a few times, morning and evening, and 
it will soon heal, without shaving the head. 

SALT RHEUIM. 

One quart of vinegar to a quarter of a pound of lith* 
arge, boiled down to half a pint. When settled, turn 
it carefully from the sediment. Take a stick, round at 
the end, and stir in two ounces of sweet oil, or more, un- 
til -it forms a consistence thicker than cream. This haa 
cured very bad cases. Remedies for the blood should 
always be given while healing any cutaneous disease. 

THE ITCH. 

To the above, add one scruple of red precipitate, and 
the same quantity of pulverized sal-ammonia, and it ia 
an infallible remedy for this dreaded and loathsome 
disease. 

A CREAK, OR PAINS IN THE BACK, SIDE, SHOULDER, ETC. 

Spread a plaster of brown hard soap on a cloth, wet it 
over with volatile liniment, and sprinkle it well with 
cayenne pepper, and it will relieve entirel}' in a day 
or two. 

POLYPUS. 

Take pulverized bloodroot and bayberry, equal parts, 
and use it as snuff. If the passage is nearly closed, take 
a small swab, wet and dip it into the snuff, and touch 
the diseased part as far up as possible. 

MORTIFICATION. 

Apply poultices of yeast, thickene-d, if convenient, 
with flour of slippery elm, warm, and renewed often, 
giving thb patient a glass of yeast three or four times a 
day, and tonic bitters. 



42 SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 

FOR SPRAINS AND BRUISES, WHEN THE SKIN IS NOT BROKEN 

Take a pint of soft soap, a handful of salt, a table spoon 
of saltpetre, powdered, and apply to the part affected 
with a bandage. 

FELON. 

Take blue flag-root and wild turnip, a handful oJ 
each, stewed in half a pint of hog's lard, and strained 
add four tea-spoonsful of tar, and simmer them together. 
Apply this ointment until it breaks. Add beeswax and 
rosin to the ointment, for a salve, to dress it with after it 
breaks. This is an infallible cure, without losing the 
joint. The root of the fleur-de-lis, the Iris of our gardens, 
boiled soft and mashed fine, with a little meal or flour, 
to make a poultice, is another safe and sure remedy. 
The poke-root is said to be equally good. These reme- 
dies are safe, and have given relief and eflfected cures. 

SIMPLE AND PERFECT CURE FOR A BURN. 

Take essence of peppermint and whiskey, in propor- 
tions of one part peppermint and three of spirits, and ap- 
ply with cloths, and it gives perfect relief, instantly. 
Peppermint and sweet oil is equally good, put on with 
cotton. This should be always at hand, whenever there 
is danger from such accidents, as it acts like a perfect 
charm, and will not fail to relieve. 

ACID STOIMACH. 

Prepared chalk, to be found always at druggists, is an 
excellent remedy for this complaint, and all the unplea- 
sant headaches and sickness to which it gives rise. Thi? 
is one form of dyspepsia, and is sometimes relieved by 
the use of this simple remedy. 

STOP THE BLEEDING OF A WOUND 

Lay on the orifice, lint j if that is not sufficient, put on 
^our and then lint. 



SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 4,i 

CUTS. 

Bind on brown sugar until it ceases bleeding, then ap- 
ply any common healing salve, with sugar melted in it, 
this takes out the soreness, better than the salve alone. 

FOll WOUNDS. 

Wounds occasioned by any thing that would produce 
lockjaw, such as nails, needles, &c., bathe with lye or 
pearlash water, and bind on a rind of pork. Spirits of 
turpentine is also good. Soft soap and salt, or chalk 
kept moist, is also a preventive for this dangerous dis- 
ease. If from neglect, this disease has been occasioned j 
without delay, you must give medicine to sicken the 
stomach, and use a warm bath to relax the nerves, and 
an anodyne, once in four hours. If it does not yield to 
this treatment, and the jaw is so fixed that remedies can- 
not be taken, then give injections, with the addition of a 
strong tea of ipecac, and from a half ounce to an ounce 
of laudanum. 

AGUE IN THE FACE. 

A plaster made of brown hard soap and brown sugar, 
mashed together, spread as a plaster, and applied, is an 
excellent remedy, when the mflammation is great, and 
will soon relieve. But a preventive and a remedy, in 
the commencement of this disease, is bathins: the face 
with strong camphor, and applying volatile liniment to 
the gums, and getting the face and ear warm as soon as 
possible. Ginger poultices are also good. 

RHEUMATISM. 

A simple tea of gum guiac and queen of the meadow, 
gives often great relief in chronic rheumatism, and 
in weakness of the limbs. 

EXCORIATIONS AND SORES. 

For sores that will not heal with common remedies, 
use the citron or yellow ointment, two or . v^:. . 



44 .VKILFUL HOUSEWIFE'S BOOK. 

day, dt the same time taking cleansing remedies for the 
blood. This often heals in a short time, when the skin 
is nearly off, in a single day, or night, and acts like a 
charm. It may be found at the druggists. 

DEAFNESS. 

Take five drops of sassafras-oil, half an ounce ofpweet 
oil, mix and drop into the ear, once or twice a day 
Another; A solution of kreosote is also recommended, 
the only sensation produced being axi agreeable warmth. 

TIC DOLOUREUZ. 

The Belladonna pill sometimes gives great relief; ta- 
ken once in four hours. Apply to a physician or drug- 
gist for the article. Sometimes a mustard poultice will 
answer. 

HYDROPHOBIA. 

Wash and cleanse the wound, and apply to every part 
of it the nitrate of silver, commonly called lunar caustic. 
This destroys the poison, and the surface of the wound, 
which will come away, if the wound be de«fp, the 
caustic should be pointed to reach every part. If faith- 
fully applied, a celebrated physician declares the patient 
perfectly safe. 

CHAPPED LIPS AND HANDS. 

Take equal parts of beeswax and rosin, or Burgundy 
pitch, mutton tallow or sweet oil, enough to make a soap 
or ointment ; you may add a little rose water. This 
occasionally applied, will relieve soon. 

TO PRKVENT BRUISES FROM TURNING BLACK. 

Make a plaster of salt and tallow to cover the wound 

STIFF JOINTS. 

Take strong salt and water, or brine, beefs gall, one 
gill each, four yolks of eggs beat up ; mix and shake 
them well together, apply three times a day. Discutient 
ointments are also 



SKILFUL HOUSEWIFE S BOOK. 



45 



BOILS. 

Make a plaster of molasses 9 ad flour, or honey and 
flour, and apply it as often as they get dry. If very 
painful, make a soft poultice of bread and milk, moist- 
ened with volatile liniment and laudanum. This will 
ease pain, allay inflammation, and hasten a cure. Reme- 
dies for cleansing the blood should be freely used. 

TO REMOVE PROUD FLESH. 

Pulverize loaf sugar very fine, and apply it to the part 
effected. This is a new and easy remedy, and is said to 
k-emove it entirely, without pain. It has been practised 
vn England for years. 

CATARRH IN THE HEAD. 

Some recommend bathing the head and shoulders in 
cold water as a preventive, and also snuff made of equal 
parts of gum Arabic, gum myrrh, and bloodroot, pulver- 
ized. But a m.ore simple remedy has sometimes given 
great relief. Snuff new milk morning and night, not 
omitting it. This is a common disease, and is one cause 
of consumption. 

DROPSY. 

A pint of the ashes of hickory bark, put in a pint of 
wine, and used three times a day, in doses of a wine- 
glass full, restored a patient who had given up the last 
hope of life. 

BRONCHITIS. 

The application of one drop of Croton oil, rubbed on 
the throat daily, against the part affected, produces a 
singular but powerful eruption, which has restored en- 
tirely the tone and vigor of the voice. For the chronic 
kind, a pill of tar, loaf sugar, skunk-cabbage-root, pulver- 
ized, and taken every two or three hours, daily, as it' 
n^o^r ^crrt^f* with +he stomach, has cured in tive or sis 



46 SKILFUL HOUSEWJFE'S BOOK. 

CROUP. 

Dissolve half a tea-spoonful of ipecac, in half a tea-ciip 
of warm water. Sweeten it, and give a half or a whole 
tea spoonful, according to the age, until vomiting is pro- 
duced ; then give it in sm.aller quantities, and less fre- 
quently. Wrap up the child to promote perspiration, 
bathe the throat with volatile liniment, or tobacco oint- 
ment. The abo-ve will give relief in a short time, if ta- 
ken in season. Onion juice and molasses may be given 
to vomit, but there should be no delay. It is known by 
a peculiar whistling sound in the breathing, and if ne- 
glected at all, proves fatal 

PUTRID SORE THROAT. 

Take two table spoonsful of cayenne peppei, one tea- 
spoon of salt, to half a pint of boiling water ; let it stand 
one hour, then add half a pint of warm vinegar. Dose 
one table-spoonful every hour ; use it also as a gargle. 
This has been proved infallible. 

C0]MMON SORE THROAT. 

A simple gargle of salt, vinegar, pepper, and watei, 
m proportions to make a pleasant combination, will cure 
a common soreness of the throat. 

E AP-AC H E . 

Cotton wool, wet with camphor, or paragonc and 
sweet oil, hot, and the ear bandaged, will give relief. 

MUMPS. 

Care should be taken to prevent taking cold, Per 
spiration should be promoted by warm drinks. If there 
IS costiveness, give a gentle laxative. Cover the swelling 
^ith cotton, and if painful, bathe it with volatile \ini« 
ment, or Cheeseman's balsam. 



47 

a weak lye. Powdered alum and barley water, as a 
gargle, is good. To inhale the steam of tansy, worm* 
wood, hops, and vinegar, and to bind the hot herbs on 
the throat, is also good. 

ERUPTIONS. 

Dissolve Epsom salts, and bathe the parts affected two 
or three times a day. 

NIGHT SWEATS. 

Take fifteen or twenty drops of elixir vitriol, once or 
twice a day ; the last dose at night. Cold sage tea, or 
Virginia snake-root, may be substituted for the above, 
occasionally. 

SPINAL AFFECTIONS. 

Bathing in strong tepid salt and water, is good for this 
and other bone diseases. 

MEASLES. 

Bathe the feet in warm alkali, and the surface of the ' 
oody also. If the eruptions should disappear, use mea 
sures to promote perspiration. Give a gentle laxative 
every day, while the symptoms continue. If there ia 
restlessness at night, give a small Dover's powder 5 foi 
nausea at the stomach, saleratus water, with a few drops 
of peppermint, will soon relieve. 

WORMS IN CHILDREN. 

Make a strong sage tea, and dissolve in it a little sale 
ratus; sweeten it, and, if preferred, add ? little milk. 
Salt and water is also good, especially if there are 
symptoms of fits. 

CANKER IN THE MOUTH. 

Take half a tea-spoonful of gunpowder, and dissolve 
ill two spoonsful of clear water. Roll up a clean cloti 
like a pipe-stem ; lay one end in the dissolved gunpow 
der, and the other in a dry saucer ; in a few hours, the 
same will contain a liquid as clear as the purest water 



48 SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 

sweeten mis thick with loaf sugar or honey, and with a 
soft swab touch the parts afiected several times a day, 
and it very soon destroys the canker. It has been used 
for infants with success. 

TO STOP VOMITING. 

A cloth wet in essence of peppermint, laid across the 
gtomach, is good. A plaster made of pulverized cloves, 
ginger, vinegar, and Indian meal, and applied to the 
Btomach, is also good. A small pill of cayenne pepper 
will sometimes stop it very soon. 

BILIOUS CHOLIC. 

Take of saleratus, a tea-spoonful ; laudanum, a tea 
spoonful ; and mint tea, half a pint. Give a small table 
spoonful, every half hour, or as often as vomiting occurs, 
and when it is allayed, give a double portion of bilious 
pills, or some active physic. If the bowels are inactive, 
injections are the anchor of hope. If the pain is intense, 
they should be given at first, made as follows : To a pint 
of starch, add half a pint of molasses, a pint of milk, a 
wineglass.ful of sweet oil, or fresh lard, and a teaspoon 
ful of table salt. Give as much as the patient can bear 
every two hours, or until relief is obtained. A teaspoon- 
ful of laudanum may be added, if there is great pain 
For a common cholic — Take a tea-spoonful of Cayenne 
pepper, and a tea-spoonful of sugar ; pour on them a 
tea-spoon of boiling water, and sip as soon as cool enough 
to drink. If necessary, give a dose of oil, or other 
physic. 

CHOLERA MORBUS. 

Take a tea-spoonful of saleratus, of powdered cinnamon 
and cloves each a tea-spoonful ; pour on them a pint of 
boiling water, and when nearly cold, add a spoonful of 



SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 49 

an anodyne injection, made of a pint of starch, half a 
gill of molasses, a spoonful of sweet oil, or lard, a tea* 
spoon of salt, and half a tea-spoon of laudanum. 

DYSENTERY. 

This disease is entirely different from common di- 
arrhoea, and proceeds from different causes. It is inflam- 
matory, and all stimulating remedies should be avjided. 
Mucilaginous drinks should be freely used ; a pill of 
ipecac, and a small Dover's powder may be given alter- 
nately, once in two or three hours, as the case requires. 
A general moisture of the skin should be kept up, and, 
if there is much pain, give the above anodyne injection 

D I ARR HCE A. 

For an infant, mix a tea-spoonful of paragonc, with 
one of magnesia, add half a teacup of water, and sweeten 
it with loaf sugar. Give a tea-spoonful of this mixtur-j 
once in two hours. To a child three or four years ola 
give it at two doses. The diet should be light and mu- 
cilaginous. Scalded milk, or arrow root, are good. If 
it is chronic, and continues, make a syrup of a tea-spoon- 
ful of rhubarb, of cinnamon and cloves one each, steeped 
in half pint of water ; strain, and add two tea-spoons of 
prepared chalk ; rweeten with loaf sugar. Dose — a tea- 
spoonful every hour. 



A FEW CHOICE MEDICAL RECEIPTS. 

OPODELDOC. 

Take common white soap three ounces, camphor one 
ounce, oil of origanum half an ounce, alcohol one pint. 
Cut the soap and disolve it in the alcohol, in whicL tlx^ 
Other articles had been previously dissolved, and cool *♦ 
in vv: le mouthed vials for use. 



60 SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 

PARAGORIC. 

Take opium, one drachm ; flowers of benzoin, one 
drachm ; camphor, two scruples ; oil of anise, one drachm ; 
liquorice, one ounce ; spirits, one quart. Dose, a ^ea- 
spoonful for an adult ; half, for a child two years uio. 
DR. Robert's welch medica mentum. 

Gum aloes, half an ounce ; rhubarb, one ounce ; gin 
ger, one ounce ; myrrh, one drachm j Cayenne pepper, 
one tea-spoonful ; spirits, one quart. Steep twenty-four 
hours, then add a tea-cup full of sugar, and half pint oC 
water. Take from one to two large table-spoonsful half 
an hour before eating. This is good for dyspepsia and 
other stomach derangements, and is a good famity medi- 
ine for children, as well as females. 

Havmg used this simple and invaluable medicine foi 
more than 20 years, I can tell all, try it. d. newell. 
SETDLITZ PoW'Drns;. 

Fold in on paper one drachm of Rochelle salts; in a 
blue paper a mixture! of twenty grains of tartaric acid, 
and twenty-five grains of carbonate of soda. They should 
all be pulverized very fine. Disolve their contents in 
separate tumblers not half full of water, then pour the 
one into the other, it will effervesce immediately. Drink 
while foaming. 

SODA AVATER. 

Take one third of a tea-spoonful of carbonate of soda, 
and half that quantity of tartaric acid, loaf sugar to make 
it pleasant. Dissolve the soda first, and drink while i< 
foams. 

FOR ELIXIR PROPRTETATIS. 

One ounce of saffron, one ounce of myrrh, and one 
ounce of aloes ; pulverize them, and let the myrrh steep 
in a half pint of rum or brandy four days ; then add the 



SKILFUL KOUSEWIFe'S BOOK. 51 

saffron and aloes ; let it stand where it is warm, and 
•hake it well twice a day for a fortnight. This given to 
children, a tea-spoonful once a month, will prevent their 
being troubled with worms, or it is also good for adults 
occasionally. 

HEALING SALVE. 

Take equal parts of rosin, beeswax, and sweet oilj 
melt and mix, stirring until cool. This is a good healing 
salve for all common sores, but if a more healing remedy 
is needed, add to this when almost boiling hot, two 
pounds of red lead ; when almost cold, add half an ounce 
of pulverized camphor. This should be spread thin and 
renewed once or twice a day. 

RHEUMATIC TINCTURE. 

Take camphor, two drachms ; gum guiacum, one 
ounce; nitre, one ounce ; balsam Tolu, two drachms; 
spirits, one quart ; mix well. Dose, half a tea-spoonful 
in a little water three or four times a day. 

TINCTURE FOR SFASiMS CRAMP IN THE STOMACH, ETC. 

Take four ounces of camphorated spirits ; four ounces 
of essence ot peppermint ; half an ounce of spirits of Am- 
monia ; one tea-spoonful of cayenne pepper, and two of 
ginger. Dose, according to age and urgency of disease. 
One table-spoonful every quarter, half, or one and two 
hours. It must be diluted with a little water ; sweetened 
if preferred. This is valuable in sudden sickness. 

SIMPLE MIXTURE FOR ALL BOWEL COMPLAINTS. 

Take rhubarb, one ounce ; saleratus, one tea-spoon- 
ful ; pour on them a pint of boiling water. When cold, 
two tea-spoonsful of essence of peppermint. Dose aa 
above. 

BLACKBERRY SYRUP. 

Take 2 quarts ripe black berries, 1 pound of loaf 
sugar, half an ounce of nutmeg, half an ounce of cinna- 



52 SKILFUL HOUSEWIFk's BOOK. 

mon, 1 quarter of an ounce of cloves, the same of alspice 
boil all together for a short time, and when cold ada 
1 pint of brandy. Strain and bottle. Dose, from a tea- 
spoon to a wine glass full, 3 or 4 times a day. This by 
some is considered a specific in summer complaints. 

URINARY MIXTURE. 

Acetate of potash 2 drachms, honey half an ounce, 
spirits of turpentine half a drachm, carbonate of soda 
half a drachm, peppermint essence, or tea, according to 
he taste. Dose, 2 table spoonsful 3 times aday. Gum 
Arabic to be taken in connection. This is good in cases 
of obstructions. 

SYRUP FOR PURIFYING THE BLOOD. 

Take 6 pounds of sarsaparilla, 3 ounces of gum 
Guiacum, 2 pounds of the bark of sassafras root, 2 
pounds of elder flowers, 2 pounds of burdock root, add 
1 gallon of cheap spirits and 1 gallon of water ; boil and 
pour off the liquor repeatedly until all the strength is 
obtained. Boil down to 6 quarts ; add 15 pounds of 
sugar or more, to make a syrup. Dose, a wme glass 
3 or 4 times a day. Add to each bottle half a teaspoon 
of saleratus. The tea of yellow dock and burdock are 
also good. 

VOLATILE LINIMENT. 

Take 1 ounce of spirits of ammonia or hartshorn, and 
add sweet oil until it is as thick and looks like cream 
This is good for an external application in all swelling* 
and inflammation. 

BALSAM OF HONEY. 

Take of balsam of Tolu, 2 ounces ; gum storax, 2 
drachms ; opium, 2 drachms ; honey 8 ounces. Dissolve 
these in a quart of spirit of wine. This balsam is very 
useful in hoarseness, and allaying irritations of th« 
lungs. It will often cure a cough that is alarming. 



SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 53. 

Godfrey's cordial. 
dissolve half an ounce of opium, 1 drachm of oil of 
passafras, in 2 ounces of spirits of wine. Mix 4 pounds 
of treacle with 1 gallon of boiling water, and when cold 
mix together. This is the celebrated cordial so much 
used for children. 

FOR TOOTHACHE PASTE. 

Take gum of opium, gum camphor, and spirits of 
turpentine, equal parts, rub them in a mortar to a paste. 
Put in the hollow of the tooth This, it is said, will cure 
and prevent from ever aching. 

COUGH SI RUPS. 

Take Iceland moss, 2 ounces, 4> poppy heads, 4 table 
spoonsful of barley ; put in 3 pmts of water, boil down 
to two, and strain it. Add 1 pound of sugar. Dose, a 
table spoonful whenever the cough is troublesome. 
Another, boil down thoroughwort to a ihick syrup, and 
sweeten with molasses. This cures whe^. other remedies 
fail. 

EYEWATER. 

Take half an ounce of white copperas and dissolve it 
in a pint of soft water. Wet the corners of the eye 
3 or 4 times a day or every hour. Another, lake of 
white vitriol as large as a large pea, the same ol S8lt, an 
ounce of water, and a small piece of opium. T.^e 2 or 
3 times a day. 

TINCTURE FOR WATERBRASH. 

Take of compound tincture of senna, 8 ounces ; tinc- 
ture of balsam of Tolu, half an ounce. Mix andtak**^ 
table spoonful every morning fasting. Anti-dyspepl ' 
pills are also good. 

volatile PLASTER FOP^ WHITE SWELLING* 

Melt together in an iron ladle, or earthen pipkin 
2 ounces of soap, and half an ounce of litharge plastei 



■ 54" SKILFUL HOUSEWIFE-S BOOK. 

When nearly cold stir in a drachm of salammoniac in 
fine powder ; spread upon leather, and apply to the part 
affected. 

OINTMENT FOR, INFLABIED EY E-L IDS. 

Take of prepared calomel, 1 scruple ; spermaceti oint- 
ment, half an ounce. Mix them well in a glass or marble 
mortar, and apply a small quantity to each corner of the 
eye every night and morning, and also to the edges of 
the lids. Take occasionally a dose of Epsom salts. If 
the above does not remove the inflammation, take aceta- 
ted zinc, 6 grains ; rose water, 6 ounces ; mix and apply 
before the ointment is used. It is said that these reme- 
dies have succeeded in every caee to which they have 
been applied. 

HERBS. 

All medicinal herbs should be gathered while in blos- 
som, and before the frosts have injured them. They 
should be well dried, and then they will be much stronger 
if kept from the air. 

The uses of the common herbs are too well known 
perhaps to need any directions. Thoroughwort is 
excellent for coughs, colds, and liver and stomach 
derangements. A tea of catnip is opening to the pores. 
Lettuce and motherwort are soothing and quieting to the 
nerves, and are for the nervous and wakeful an excellent 
drink. Hop-tea, with saleratus dissolved in it, is invalu- 
able for all common and frequent headaches, derange- 
ment of the stomach by acidity, &c. It is a good plan 
to gather burdock and hori;e-radish leaves and dry them. 
When dipped in hot water or vinegar they are good for 
agues, inflammations, pains, &,c., applied externally. 

POISONS. 

Every person ought in some measure, to be acquainted 
with the nature and cure of poisons. Those affected by 
them are generally taken unawares, and their effects are 



SKILFUL HOUSEWIFi:'s BOOK- 55 

often so sudden and violent as to admit of no delay. No 
great degree of medical knowledge is here necessary ; the_ 
remedies for most poisons being generally at hand, or easily 
obtained, and their application easy. 

ANTIDOTES.' 

The first thing to be done when a person has swallowed 
poison, is to ascertain what it is he has taken ; next, to be 
speedy in resorting to appropriate remedies, and if one fails^ 
to try others without loss of time. 

ACIDS. OIL OF VITRIOL, AQUAFORTIS, SEA-SALTS, OXAI,IC ACID 

Symptoms — Burning heat in the mouth and stomach, 
bad breath, an inclination to vomit, or vomiting various 
matters mixed with blood, hickups, &c., so great pain in the 
bowels that not even the weight of a sheet can be borne, 
burning thirst, difficulty of breathing, &c. Remedies — Mix 
an ounce of calcined magnesia with a pint of water, and 
give a glass full every 2 minutes. If it is not at hand, use 
flaxseed tea, rice water, or water alone in large quantities 
until the former can be procured. If it cannot be obtained, 
disolve an ounce of soap in a pint of water, and take a glass 
full every 2 minutes ; chalk or whiting may be taken, and 
give injections of milk often. If the patient does not vomit, 
put him in the warm bath, bleed him freel}'-, and apply 
blisters over the part pained. If the cramps continue, take 
a cup of common tea, an ounce of sugar, 15 or 20 drops of 
laudanum every quarter of an hour. No nourishment but 
sweetened rice water is to be taken for several days. In 
these cases nothing should be given to cause vomiting. 

ALKALIES. 

These substances produce the same effects as acids, caus- 
ing dreadful convulsions. Remedies — Take two table- 
gpoons-ful of vinegar or lemon juice in a glass of water ai 
once, and follow it up by drinking large quantities of soap 
and water ; other treatment as in acids. 



56 SKILFUL HOUSEWIFE S BOOK. 

MERCURY, COROSIVE SUBLIMATE, RED PRECIPITATE, VERMILIOR 

Symptoms — Constriction and pain in tlie tiiroat, stomach, 
and bowels, vomiting and convulsions. Remedies — Mix 
the white of 12 or 15 eggs with two pints of cold water, 
and give a glass full every 2 minutes, with as much milk 
as can be swallowed, and large doses of ipecacuanha. If 
after it is taken, the vomiting does not cease, repeat the same 
with the addition of more water. The warm bath, blisters, 
leeches, &c., may be used to relieve the pain and inflam- 
mation. 

ARSENIC. 

Symptoms the same as in mercurial poisons. Remedies — 
Give large quantities of cold sugar and water, until a plen- 
tiful vomiting is induced, to assist which give ipecacuanha 
in considerable doses, and barley and rice water, or flaxseed 
'ea and milk, should afterwards be employed. Oil is never 
to be used until the symptoms are abated, or the poison is 
ejected. Another — Hydrated peroxide of iron has been 
administered with perfect success. It is said to overcome 
the effects of the poison immediately. 

COPPER. 

The symptoms from the swallowing of verdigris, are 
nearly the same as those of the mercurial poisons. The 
great remedy is, large quantities of sweetened water ; in ad- 
dition, use all the means recommended for corrosive subli- 
mate, &c. 

L U N ARC A USTl C . 

Disolve 2 table-spoonsful of table salt in 2 pints of water 
a few glasses of this will induce vomiting. If not relieved, 
use flaxseed tea, and other remedies good for acids. 

SALTPETRE 

Pursue the plan recommended for arsenic in the first di' 
rections. 



SZILFUL housewife's BOOK. 57 

LEAD. 

l>i»'solve a handful of Epsom or glauber salts in a pint of 
water and give it at once ; after vomiting is produced, use 
sweetened water. If the symptoms continue, do as directed 
for acids. 

POWDEEED GLASS. 

Stuff the patient with thick rice pudding, bread, potatoes, 
or any other vegetable ; then give five grains of tartar emetic 
to vomit him, after which use milk freely ; injections, warm 
bath, fomentations, are not to be neglected. 

OPIUM. 

Let a tea-spoonful of Cayenne pepper, or twice the quan- 
tity of black, be steeped in about half a tea-cup of boiling 
water, give a tea-spoonful as often as possible until the 
whole be down. Immediately after give an emetic,as soon 
as it operates freely the patient should take a little more 
of the Cayenne and a table-spoonful or more of lemon 
luice, or strong vinegar, and kept in motion until danger is 
over. In an hour after taking the lemon juice, give a little 
Sroth or light nourishing food, well seasoned with Cayenne 
or black pepper. This simple process will always subdue 
the poison of opium or any other narcotic. Infants have 
been relieved and saved from an over dose of paragoric or 
laudanum, by giving a spoonful of vinegar immediately. 

MUSHROOMS. 

Give the patient immediately, three grains of tartar 
emetic ; twenty-five or thirty of ipecac ; and an ounce 
of salts, dissolved in a glass of water ; one third to be 
taken every fifteen minutes until he vomits freely, then 
purge with castor oil, 

TOBACCO, HEMLOCK, NIGHT-SHADE SPIIHRLD RYE, ETC, 

An emetic, as directed for opium. If the poison has 
been swallowed some time, purge with castor oil. After 
vomiting and purging, if still drowsy, bleed and give vin- 
effar and water. 



58 SKILFUL housewife's BOOlv. 

POISONOUS FISH. 

Give an emetic. If it has been eaten some time, giv« 
oil and injections. After these have operated, twenty 
drops of ether may be taken on a lump of sugar. Vine- 
gar and water may then be given. 

BITE OF A SNAKE MAD DOG, ETC. 

The moment a person is bitten, apply a ligature above 
the wound, and compressed lightly by winding it up 
with a stick, close as it can be borne. Cut out the 
wound, and then touch it with caustic, or pour in turpen- 
tine. A decoction of Spanish flies and turpentine should 
be applied to the skin around the wound to excite in- 
flammation and suppuration, which is highly important. 
As soon as it is cut, take off the ligature. If the patient 
* .s too timid to bear the knife, burn the wound freely with 
caustic, and put in cotton well moistened with the above. 
The discharge of matter should be kept up some time. 
The use of the chlorwerts in these cases is much used with 
water in France and Germany. Apply it twice a day 
with lint ; and take, three times a day, from two drachms 
to an ounce. 

FOREIGN SUBSTANCES IN THE THROAT. 

Persons are sometimes in danger of suffocation from 
fish-bones, pins, &c., that stick in the throat. When 
this occurs, desire the patient to be perfectly still, open 
his mouth and look into it. If you can see it, endeavor 
to seize it with your thumb and finger, or a long slender 
pair of pincers. If it cannot be got up, or is not of a na- 
ture to do injury in the stomach, push it down with the 
handle of a spoon or a flexible round piece of whale bone, 
the end of which must be covered with a roll of linen or 
any thing of the kind that may be at hand. If you can 
neither get it up nor down, place six grains of tartar 
emetic in the patient's mouth j as it dissolves it will make 



SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 59 

him excessively sick, and in consequence of the relaxa- 
tion, the bone or whatever it may be, will descend into 
the stomach or be ejected from the mouth. If a pin, but- 
ton, or other metalic pointed body, has been swallowed, 
give rice, or other pudding plentifully, to sheathe the 
mach from danger. 

D R Y M R T I F 1 C A T I N . 

This sometimes comesof itself without apparent cause 
It attacks the toes of old people, and appears in small bluisi 
or black spots, which spread. Place a blister over thf 
spot, and give two or less grains of opium night and 
morning, and keep the bowels open by castor oil. 

TO STOP THE BLEEDING OF WOUNDS. 

If the flow of blood is but trifling, draw the edges of 
the wound together with your hand, and hold them in 
that position some time, when it will frequently stop. If, 
on the contrary, it is large, of a bright red color, flowing 
in spirts, or with a jerk, clap your finger on the spot 
where it springs from, and hold it there with a firm pres- 
sure, while you direct some one to pass a handkerchief 
around the limb above the cut, and tie it in a hard knot. 
A cane or stick of any kind must be passed under the 
knot, and turned round and round, until the stick is 
brought down to the thigh, so as to make the handker- 
chief of considerable tightness. You may then take off 
your finger ; if the blood still flows, tighten the handker- 
chief with a turn or two of the stick until it ceases. The 
patient may now be removed, taking care to secure the 
stick, without running any risk of bleeding to death by 
the way. This is merely to prevent bleeding fatally un- 
til a surgeon can be called. If the wound is too high in 
the limb to admit of the handkerchief, press on above the 
wound, with the hand or anything that is of a hard sub- 
stance. 



60 SKILFUL 

POISON FROM ANTMAL PUTRIDITY. 

It is not generally known that animal matter becoming 
putrid, under certain circumstances, is a virulent poison, 
capable of destroying life if taken into the circulation, 
applied to the stomach, or to an abraded surface. Scarcely 
a year passes but more or less valuable life is sacrificed 
in this way. The physician and student, from a prick, a 
scratch, or trifling sore, at which this poison has entered 
the system, in a post mortem examination, have experi- 
enced its fatal effects. It is equally true that the matter 
from. Erysipelas and other sores, alter death, have been 
the cause of the same evils. 

Cheese, after having undergone certain change, becomes 
animal poison. Sausages may become so from being kept 
too long. Meat will also become hurtful in the same 
way, though boiling-hot water will arrest it, and it may 
be rendered safe by using saleratus in cooking it. As 
the result of experiment, it is found that putrifying mus- 
cle, or pus, if placed on a fresh wound, will cause disease 
and death. But boiling water or alcohol will render if 
innoxious. 



CONTAGION, INFECTION, ETC. 

PURULENT OF OPTHALMIA. 

In this affection, the discharge from the eyes is capable 
of communicating the disease if applied to a healthy person. 
The towels used by the patient, should not be used by 
others. And any one attending another in this complaint, 
should be careful to wash his hands, after having washed 
their eyes, etc. In this disease, the patient should sleep 
alone. 

EP. YSIPEI. AS. 

This is known by diffuse swelling, accompanied with a 
Ted blush, or suffusion, on the face, arms, &c., which feci 



SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 61 

ournmg hot, and is attended with symptoms of fever. The 
apartment should be cool and well ventilated ; the changes 
of linen frequent. If there should be appearance of matter, 
the nurse should cover any scratch with lard when touch 
ing the discharge, and immediately after she has been 
handling the parts, should wash her hands with soap and 
warm water. All the directions of the medical attendants 
should be strictly obeyed. 

RINGWORM OF THE SCALP. 

Children who are affected with this complaint, should be 
separated from other children. It is a disease that is apt to 
resist remedies, but it may be cured with proper applica- 
tions faithfully applied. 

ITCH. 

It is scarcely necessary to give any caution on this sub^- 
ject. It is not difficult to cure, and is never a primary dis- 
ease, only among the lowest and uncleanly of the poor, but 
is imparted by contact. 

Infectious- diseases are communicated through the air, 
some of the most common are the following: 

WHOOPING COUGH. 

This disease should never be allowed to take its natural 
course, but should be treated with remedies appropriate to 
its distressing nature. Riding, well ventilated rooms, mild 
and loosening syrups, are very beneficial. 

DYSENTERY 

Is characterized by frequent and bloody evacuations and 
continued fever. It requires perfect cleanliness, and tha 
instant removal of all evacuations. 

SCARLET FEVER 

Requires a cool apartment, very free ventilation, and fre- 
quent changes of linen. The nurse should be one who 
has had this disease. 



62 SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 

MEASLES. 

They require a warm, or at least a temperate apartment 
free from currents of air ; sudden changes of heat and cold 
are dangerous. Clean hnen should be carefully aired 
The diet, farinaceous ; the beverage, toast-water. 

SMALT. POX. 

In this loathsome disease, the apartment should be Jarg*^, 
cool, and well ventilated. The windows should be open 
day and night, and the linen changed daily. During the 
discharge of the pustules, change it twice a day. The pa- 
tient should be taken into the open air often. Children and 
others, even if they have been vaccinated, should not visit 
the sick-rooom, though they need not leave the house. 
After the disease is over, the bed and bedding should b* 
scoured, the room fumigated, and thoroughly cleansed. 

TYPHUS FEVER. 

If the apartment is large, airy, and clean, there is littlo 
danger from infection. The simple process spoken of in 
another part of this work, will prevent any bad effect frono 
the disease. The sheets and body linen should be change® 
once or twice in 24 hours, and instantly removed from th* 
room, as well as all evacuations. Chloride of lime, or com 
mon lye, should be used in the night-chair or bed-pan. h 
is well also to use it in washing the clothes. 

CONSUMPTION. 

TJhe apartment should be large and well ventilated, but 
the temperature mild and equable as possible, about 65o 
Fahrenheit. The diet should be light, mostly vegetable 
and farinaceous. The invalid should take moderate exer- 
cise, either in a carriage, or on horseback, sailing or swing- 
ino- ; exercise should be taken wnthin doors. This disease 
by many, is thought to be contagious. On the Island of 
Cuba, they have a law that furniture and clothing, when 
there is a fatal termination, shall be destroyed, the walls to 



SKILFUL housewife's BOOK 63 

oe removed and newly plastered. This we think unneces 
•)ary, but it is well to cleanse the air, and use precautions in 
■ihe preservation of health during any case of fatal sickness. 
When contagious or infectious diseases occur in a family 
here should be no yielding to fear or alarm. The mind 
should be calm, and as undisturbed as possible, as the de« 
Dressing passions render a person very susceptible to the 
poison of contagion or infection. The diet should be more 
g-enerous than usual, and disinfecting agents shon! 1 be fre- 
quently used. Cleanliness in every respect, and ventilation, 
ire indispensable. By such management and precaution, 
•liseases of these classes rarely extend. 

INFLAMMATORY DISEASES. 

Except when the chest is the seat of disease, the temper- 
iture should be rather low or cool. Directions are gener- 
illy given by the medical attendant, but when this is not 
the case, it may be laid down as a general rule, to avoid 
g-iving animal food, wine, spirits, ^porter, or any stimulants, 
m this class of complaints. Liquid food is most suitable, 
irrow root, toast-water, &c., &c. The medical treatment 
n such diseases is more active than in others, and as they 
^un their course rapidly, very much depends on strict atten 
ion to the direction of the physician. Ill-judged teii- 
lerness and indulgence should never spare the invalid child 
ts dreaded and nauseous dose, for its precious life may de- 
.:)end upon its being faithfully administered- Care shoula 
le taken when the patient is partially recovered, not to bring 
)n a relapse by over eating, indulgence in improper food, 
'.nd over exertion. Hij should proceed timidly and gradu- 
dly in renewing all his former habits and employments. 

DISEASES OF DEBILITY. 

Under this term may be comprehended all those various 
md often chronic diseases thr' originate chiefly from a dis- 
ordered siito (if tho (I'o-'.^tivo o'i:ans. nn 1 a (Jeranq;rd and 



64 SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 

impaired state of ihe nervous system. The> ha/e niore ol 
less influence on the mind and require peculiai management. 
Every thing should be done to promote cheerfulness, and 
to encourage hope in ihe invalid ; it does-good like medicine, 
and medicine does little good without it. The most careful 
attention should be paid to diet, clothing and exercise, and 
the mind kept as much as possible from dwelling on de- 
sponding subjects. Let them understand that it is a part 
of the disease to apprehend the worst, and in every new 
pain to fear a new disease. This will give the mind repose, 
and allay its apprfchen5ion, preparing the way for recovery. 

HINTS roil NURSTN« THE SICK. 

The person who acts as nurse, should be present du"mg 
the doctor's visit to the patient, and should help the sick in 
giving account of himself Exactness and punctuality in 
following prescriptions, is indispensable ; no one should 
be employed, who would not make.it a point of conscience. 
There should always be a time-piece at hand, that different 
doses may not interfere with each other. Nothing should 
be concealed from the physician, that is important for him 
to know. The countenance should wear a cheerful expres* 
sion, and all the movements should be gentle and noiseless 
as possible, in a sick room. 

It is rarely proper to wake a patient for any thing, as 
sleep is often more useful than medicine, and should never 
be done, unless the physician deems it necessary. Never 
burden the sick with officious and unmeaning attentions, 
and never let them feel the want of care. 

Trifles that would not disturb the mind of one in health, 
will often annoy, and even distress the invalid ; the clattei 
of renewing the fire, the careless opening and shutting of 
doors, all harsh movements, should be studiously avoided. 

Great care should be used in preventing colds in chang- 
mg the linen, and in removing' the patient from one bed tv 



SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 65 

another. Chills are often a consequence of a cold fresh bed 
when a little care would have prevented it. A flannel 
sheet to wrap around the person, is a great safeguard 
especially if therr are no conveniencies for warming the 
bed. The linen should be well aired and warmed, before 
being used, and then the utmost caution is necessary in 
preventing chills from the external air, which has often 
been the cause of much suffering. A blanket, or shawl? 
should be constantly at hand to put around the shoulders 
when sitting up in bed. Let a towel be spread over the 
sheet, when the food or liquids are taken, to prevent untidi- 
ness. The bed-clothes should be straightened, and the pil- 
lows smoothed frequently ; it is refreshing to the weary and 
often restless sufferer. 

If you are only a watcher for the night, be sure to under- 
stand the directions for food and medicine, and omit nothino" 
Take care of your own health by being warmly clad, du- 
ring the chillness of night, and if the patient requires air 
protect yourself from its inflf^nce. Have the sick room 
quiet at an early hour, w'./i things so arranged, that but 
little movement shall be necessary through the night. Do 
not refuse to take refr^^thment ; plain food supplies the place 
of sleep, to the " xhausted body, and helps one to keep 
awake. Wh^.j friction is used have mittens made of flan- 
nel and tied around the wrist, it is more convenient for the 
Lurse, a^.d more soothing to the patient. When hot fo- 
ment^'^ions are needed, dip the cloth in the hot water, and 
fo'"'. it in a cool towel, wringing both together to prevent 
durning the hands. Feverish patients are greatly refreshed 
by sponging the hands, face, and feet with tepid water. 
When the feet are to be bathed in warm water, add hot 
water as fast as it cools, and when bathed long enough, 
wipe one at a lime with a warm dry towel, and cover i. 
with a woollen stocking. In dressing a blister have everv 



66 SKILFUL HOUSEWIFE S BOOK. 

thing ready before the operation is commenced, as the ail 
is as painful as a burn, and when you have opened the 
lower part of the blister, and let out the water, cover it as 
quick as possible with wilted leaves or salve. Keep every 
thing about the patient's bed and room perfectly clean ; one 
*'keep clean is worth ten make clean." Fresh air is of 
vital importance, and great pains should be taken to change 
it often, as well as to purify it. When you nurse the sick 
never allow your patience or self-possession, to get exhaust- 
ed ; but let this thought cheer you in what you do. It is 
better to be the nurse, than the patient. If you discover 
iafirmities of temper in the invalid, learn to avoid similar 
faults when you are equally tempted and are suffering 
yourself. 

But above all other considerations, remember that you 
are helping to detain a soul from its final destiny, and that 
although the tenement is the special object of attention, let 
not the more important part be forgotten or neglected. Be 
alive to every word, look, or gesture that indicates the wants 
of the deathless spirit. Reading a portion of the Bible or 
some spiritual work, adapted to the occasion, may be ren- 
dered of infinite service to one shut out from the cares of the 
world, under the discipline that is designed for the improve- 
ment of the spiritual life. 

Suffer not your own natural diffidence on such subjects 
to deter you from eliciting confidence or imparting and se- 
curing instruction for the soul struggling to be free. 



PREPARATION FOR THE SICK. 

water gruel. 

Mix two table spoonsful of Indian or oat meal with three 

of water. Have ready a pint and a half of boiling water in 

a sauce pan or skillet, perfectly clean ; pour this by degrees 

vnto the mixture in the bowl ; then return it back into the 



SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 61 

.*.-illel and place it on the fire to boil. Stir it, and let it 
Doil nearly half an hour. Skim it, and season it with a 
little sah. Ifit is admissible, a little sugar and nutmeg ren- 
ders it more palatable. Also, if milk is not forbidden, a 
small tea-cupful added to a pint of gruel, and boiled up 
cnce, makes a nice dish for an invalid. 

MILK PO II RIDGE. 

This is made nearly in the same way as gruel, only using 
half flour, and half meal, and half milk instead of water 
It should be cooked before the milk is added, and only 
Doiled up once afterwards. 

ARROWROOT. 

A tumbler of this may be made in two minutes if you 
have boiling water. Take a tea-spoonful of the powder, 
moisten it with a table-spoonful of cold water, rub it smooth, 
and add another of warm water, and stir it until it is 
perfectly smooth, then pour on boiling water, stirring it un- 
til it changes to a transparent substance. It may be sea- 
soned simply with salt, or with lemon juice and sugar, or 
with sugar and nutmeg, w'ith a little milk. It may be made 
thick as blanc mange, and eaten with cold cream and sugar. 

BEEF-TEA. 

Take one pound of lean fresh beef cut thin, put it in ajar 
or wide mouthed bottle add a little salt, place it in a kettle 
of boiling water to remain one hour, then strain it, and 
there will be a gill of pure nourishing liquid. Begin with 
a tea-spoonful and increase as the stomach will bear. This 
has been retained on the stomach when nothing else could 
De, and has raised the patient when other means have failed. 

WINE WHEY. 

Take half a pint of new milk, put it on the fire and the 
moment it boils, pour in that instant two glasses of wine 
and a tea-spoonful of powdered sugar previously mixed. The 
curd will soon form, and after it is boiled, set it aside until 
the curd settles. Pour the whey ofFand add a pint of boil- 
ing water, and loaf sugar to sweeten to the taste. This 
may be drank in typhus and other fevers, debility, &c. 

SAGO. 

To a tea-cupful of sago, allow a quart of water. Let it 



68 SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 

soak two or three hours, then boil it with some lemon peel 
until it is a clear transparent jelly. Milk may be used. 
Powdered loaf sug-ar, cream and nutmeg may be taken as 
sauce. 

Calves feet blancmange. 

Put a set of calves feet nicely cleansed and washed, into 
four quarts of water and reduce it by boiling to one quart ; 
strain it and set it by to cool. When cold, take off all the 
fat, and remove all the settlings at the bottom, and put to it 
a quart of new milk, with sugar to taste, and boil it a few 
minutes. If you wish to flavor it with lemon peel or cinna 
mon, do it before boiling ; if with rose water, peach water, 
essence of lemon, do it after. When boiled ten mi'nutes, 
strain it through a fine sieve into a pitcher, and stir it till it 
cools. When only blood warm, put it in moulds that have 
been wet with cold water, and let it harden. This is good 
for the sick or well. 

PA NAD A. 

One of the most simple and least hurtful dishes for the. 
sick, is cracker panada. Take half a bowl of boiling wa- . 
ter, two or three large lumps of loaf sugar, roll a Boston 
cracker into fine crumbs, and when put in the bowl, grate 
over a little nutmeg. It is very simple and palatable. If 
wine is given, a tea-spoonful improves it. 

BREAD PANADA. 

Take off the crust and boil two slices of bread in a quart 
of water about five minutes. Then take out the bread and 
beat it smooth in a dish, mixing with it some of the water 
in which it Avas boiled. Put in sugar and nutmeg to your 
taste, and if allowed a small piece of butter. 

CHICK ENJELLY. 

Cut a chicken into small pieces, bruise the bones, and put 
the whole in a stoiie jar and cover it close. Set the jar in 
a kettle of boiling water, and keep it boiling three hours 
Then strain off the liquid, and season it with a little salt, 
nepper, mace, &c., or vvith loaf sugar and lemon. Returo 
.he chicken to the jar and boil again ; it will produce nearlj 
as much as before of jelly. It can be made just as well of 
nn old fowl. 



SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 6^ 

CUSTARD EGG. 

When a patient can bear a raw egg, it is very strength- 
ening. Beat it ami prepare it with sugar, milk, and nut- 
meg, and, as a drink, it is delightful. 

BREAD JELLY. 

Toast four slices of stale bread, until they are of a light 
brown, having first taken off the crust ; lay the bread in two 
quarts of boiling water, add if you please, two tablespoons- 
fui of lemon-juice, and let the bread boil to a jelly. Strain 
and sweeten it, and flavor with lemon-peel or nutmeg. It 
is excellent for very sick persons, or young children. 

TAPIOCA JELLY. 

Wash four table spoonsful of tapioca, and soak it in 
water enough to cover it, five hours. Set a pint of boiling 
water on the fire, and stir into it the tapioca. Putin a stick 
of cinnamon or mace, and let the whole simmer gently; 
When thick and clear, mix two table-spoonsful of white 
sugar, half a table- spoonful of lemon-juice, and half a glass 
of white wine, if the patient can bear it, and stir into the 
jelly ; then turn it into cups. 

RICE GRUEL. 

Take one spoonful of rice, a pint and a half of water, a 
stick of cinnamon or lemon-peel, boil it soft, and add a pint 
of new milk; strain it, and season with a little salt. If you 
make it of rice flour, mix one spoonful with a little cold 
water smoothly, and stir it into a quart of boiling water. 
Let it boil five or six minutes, stirring it constantly. Sea- 
son it with salt, nutmeg, and sugar, and if admissible a little 
butter. If the patient bears stimulants, a little wine may 
be added. 

calves' feet broth. 

Boil two feet in three quarts of water until the water is 
half gone. Take off all the ftit, season with a little salt, and, 
if suitable, a spoonful of white or port wine to a teacupful. 
This is nourishing and strengthening for an invalid. If a 
richtr broth may be used, boil with the feet two ounces of 
veal, or beef, a slice of bread, a blade or two of mace. 



70 SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 

CHICKEN, BEEF, OR VEAL BROTH. 

This is made by cutting- up the chicken, or the lean of 
veal or beef, and putting in two spoonsful of washed rice, 
and boiling until tender. It may be used, if needed in haste, 
after boiling in less water about 15 minutes, then filling it 
up and finishing. It should be put by in a bowl or pitcher 
covered, to keep for use. Warm it, and add crumbs of 
Boston crackers or bread a day or two old, with a little 
salt, and there is nothing more palatable for the sick. 

TO A ST-W ATE R. 

Take a thin slice of stale bread, toast it brown on both 
sides slowly and equally. Lay it in a bowl, and pour on 
boiling water, and cover with a saucer to cool. 

HOT LEMONADE. 

Cut up the whole of a lemon, rind and all, add one tea- 
cupful of white sugar, and pour on boiling water. This is 
good for colds, and is a pleasant drink for the sick. 



CHAPTER IV. 
HINTS ON THE PRESERVATION OF HEALTH. 

WET CLOTHES. 

It is impossible for people who go out much to avoid 
sometimes being wet. But the danger may be lessened, 
if not wholly prevented, by changing them soon. W^hen 
this cannot be done, they should keep in action until dry. 
Wet clothes obstruct the perspiration, and even the most 
healthy are not proof against their ill effects ; they occasion 
fevers, rheumatism, and consumption. Wet feet also are 
injurious. The dehcate should especially be cautious in this 
respect. 

CHANGES IN THE ATMOSPHERE. 

With us the degrees of heat and cold are not only very 
diflPerent in the ^seasons of the year, but often change 
from one extreme to another, in the course of a few 
days, and sometimes in the course of one day. The best 
method of fortifying the body against the changes of the 



SKILFUL housewife"* S BOOK. 7^ 

weather, i-s to be abroad every day. Those .who keep 
within doors are most liable to catch cold. They become 
so delicate that the slightest changes affect them, and are 
frequentl}^ afflicted with paips, coughs, oppression of the 
breast, &,c. The physical powers and feelings are affected 
often materially by the change from winter to spring, 
and many are in the practice of being bled, or taking 
cathartics. They may, by the advice of a physician, be 
sometimes useful, but they should never be practised as 
a habit. Exercise is particularly useful at this season j 
friction of the skin, comfortable and suitable clothing, 
will often prevent what is termed the " spring fever." 
Another thing, the more you give way to the feeling of 
Icnv spirits or languor, tiie more power they gain over 
you. Go forth into the beautiful sunshine, and along 
the pleasaLt places where God has scattered His glories 
so bountifuil}'-, walk with a swift step, and breathe with 
delight the pure and balmy air of spring, and let the 
new sweet sights and sounds of nature leave their invig- 
orating and hoalthful influence upon the soul and frame. 

FRESH AIR. 

it is not in the power of all to comm^and equal advan- 
tages in this respect, but clean apartments, and the free 
admission of air at suitable times, are very necessary in 
promoting health and cheerfulness. Exposure to cur- 
rents of air at any time, especially when the body is 
heated, sudden transitions from heat to cold, or from 
cold to heat, sleeping in damp rooms, damp linen, &c., 
are causes of cold, and therefore highly deleterious. 

UNWHOLESOME DIET. 

A precaution on this subject is a v.ord to the wise, 
and, if heeded, will prevent the train of ills to which it 
gives birth. Those who have delicate, or dyspeptic 
stomachs, must be, in this respect, self-denying. Wlien 
•hey have once suffered from any food that is indigestible, 
they should practise abstinence. Experience is the best 
teacher ; still, a few articles may be specified as unsafe. 
Crude ve jetables, hard-boiled eggs, oily substances, 
fresh fish, salt-dried meats, made dishes ; in short, every 



72 



SKILFUL TTOUSEWirE S BOOK. 



Niing that creates acidity should be car^'lully avo.oecL 
Animal food, if of a digestible and mild quality, may be 
ised, though meat suppers are injurious. 

CLOTHING. 

Under all circumstances there should be an adaptation 
9 the state and condition of the weather. But when the 
aigestive organs are derangt^d, or in cases of debility, it 
IS of great importance to maintain a due action of the 
fikin. The clothing should be suited to this purpose, 
warm, but not heavy, and that worn next the skin 
should be flannel, summer and winter, though of a lighter 
texture in summer. Following these directions a worn 
and frail physical nature will endure much longer the 
inclemencies of our changing and variable climate The 
dress, too, should fit, w^ithout fettering the body. Paint- 
ings, fits, and death m.ay be caused by tight-dressing. It 
stops or impedes circulation, and is one of the primary 
causes of bad health and broken constitutions. 

RULES F0I{ THE PROMOTION OF HEALTH. 

Rise early, and never sit up late, if it can be avoided. 

fVash the body every morning, and rub it dry with a 

rough towel, or else use friction ten or fifteen minutes 

with a flesh brush. Drink no spirits, wine, or fermented 

uors, unless prescribed by a physician. Sle'ep in a 

oom that has free access to the open air. Keep the 
head cool by bathing it every morning with cold water, 
and abate feverish and inflammatory symptoms by perse- 

ering stillness. Correct symptoms of plethora and indi- 
gestion, by eating and drinking less for a few days. Never 
eat a hearty supper of animal food. Never let a candle 
or lamp smoke after it is extinguished. Air your 
churches, houses, and rooms. Let no decaying sub- 
stances, animal or vegetable, remain in your cellars or 
about your dwellings. Be cheerful, and never allow 
yourself to lose self-possession, for an unhappy state of 
the mind will produce a corresponding unhlalthiness of 
the body. 

E X E |{ c I s E . 

There is no kind of exercise more beneficial tharj 
walking, as it gives a general action to the muscles of 



SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 73 

the body, but for valetudinarians riding on Lorseback, or 
in a carriage, is preferable. Travelling for health does 
more for the feeble often than medicine. The feeble should 
never exercise immediately after meals ; it often produces 
heart-burn, eructations, and vomiting ; or if not, retards 
the regular digestion of food. Reading aloud is a healthy 
exercise for the lungs ; to speak very loud, or to exercise 
the voice immediately after a meal, is hurtful to the lungs, 
as well as to the organs of digestion. Singing, in a re- 
markable degree, promotes the circulation of the blood. 
Sedentary artificers and mechanics, who sing at their work, 
contribute much to the preservation of their health. 

FRICTION. 

•One of the most gentle and useful kinds of exercise 
is, friction of the body with a piece of flannel or a flesh 
brush. This was in great esteem among the ancients, 
and is so at present in the East Indies. The whole body 
may be subjected to this mild, healthful operation, but 
the spine, the bowels, &c., should be most carefully at- 
tended to. Friction clears the skin, resolves stagnating 
humors, promotes perspiration, strengthens the fibres, 
and increases the warmth and energy of the whole body. 
For any one who has not leisure to take sufficient exer- 
cise it is an excellent substitute, and highly important. 
For palsy, rheumatism, indigestion, it is an excellent 
remedy. It may be performed in bed at night, or in the 
morning before rising, and should be continued some 
minutes at a time. 

BATHING. 

The tepid bath seems the best adapted to the purposes 
of cleanliness and healthy exercise. To dehcate females 
• and young children it is of primary importance; at any 
rate, frequent ablutions should be practised, and the skin 
rubbed dry. The feet should be bathed as often as once 
or twice a week. This is a luxury, as well as a promoter 
of health. 

TO PRESERVE THE EYE-SIGHT. 

Never sit long at a time in perfect darkness, nor ex- 
Dosed to a blaze of light. Sudden transitions are not 



74 SKILFUL housewife's BOOK 

good. Avoid reading small print, or straining the eyes 
by looking at minute objects. If the eyes are disordered, 
do not read by candle-light, nor at dusk. Never gaze on 
glaring objects ; nor allow too much light in your sleeping 
apartment. The furniture, drapery, &c., should not be 
altogether white ; and if the eyes are weak, there will be 
much advantage in having green for the prevailing color in 
your room. The short-sighted should accustom themselves 
to holding their book as far off as possible, and the long- 
sighted as near as may be. Bathing the head, eyes, face 
and neck, in cold water every morning, strengthens the 
pves, and is an excellent practice. 

TO PRESERVE THE TEETH. 

To wash the mouth is serviceable, not only to keep the 
teeth clean, and thus to prevent decay, but in strengthening 
the gums, and making them adhere firmly to the teeth, 
which is of great importance in preserving them sound 
and secure. Use a brush mornings, and, when powder is 
necessary, the prepared chalk alone is good ; or, if the 
gums are becoming spongy, a mixture of Peruvian bark 
with it is better. If tartar accumulates on the teeth, apply 
to a dentist. 

HAIR. 

If the head is dry and feverish, and the bair husky, oil 
it occasionally, it will preserve it in a more heallhy con- 
dition, and prevent its becoming gray. If, on the contrary 
there is too much moisture and oil on the hair, and it 
comes out, wash the head with soap and water, and wet 
in brandy occasionally to strengthen the roots. Macassor 
oil is also good to strengthen the roots — made as follows : 
Take three quarts of common oil, half a pint of spirits of 
wine, three ounces of bergamot; beat them together, and, 
when removed from the fire, add four small pieces of alka- 
net root, and keep it covered closely several hours, then 
strain, and it is ready for use. P&lma (/hriste oil, scented, 
brushed into the hair twice a day two or thr^e months, pro- 
motes its growth, and is said to be VAln^b^e ic mating it 
luxuriant. 






SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 75 

TO PREVENT THE SPREADING OF CONTAGION. 

It cannot be too widely known that nitrous acid 
possesses the properties of destroying the coutajrion of 
typhus fevers and other inahgnant diseases. I3y the 
following simple process the gas may be procured with 
but httle expense and trouble. Place a Httle saltpetre 
on a saucer, and pour on it as much oil of vitrol as will 
just cover it ; a copious discharge of acid gas will 
instantly take place. The quantity may be regulated by 
the ingredients. This is very important in preserving 
health and preventing the spread of contagion. 

CHAPTER V. 

USEFUL HINTS AND ITEMS FOR HOUSE-KEEPERS. 

Do every thing in its proper time. Keep every thing 
in its place. Mend clothes before washing, except stock- 
ings, they are best darned when clean. Wash all colored 
garments with hard soap, and do it as quick as possible. 
Flannels should be washed in hot suds, and rinsed in clean, 
soft, boiling water ; to stand until cool enough to wring 
out, and they will not turn yellow nor shrink. A little 
bluing improves them. 

Alum or vinegar is good to set the colors of red, green, 
and yellow ; salt is good for blue. Before you wash, dip 
blues in salt and water, use alum after. If table cloths are 
stained with tea, coffee, or fruit, turn on thehi boilino- water, 
and let them stand till the water is cold, or the color will 
never come out. Starch all kinds of calico, but black ; use 
potato water for black, as that will not show. If there are 
many m a family that wear black, save the water when 
potatoes are boiled, for this purpose. 

Sal Soda will bleach clothes very white, but used in large 
quantities is thought to injure the texture. One spoonful 
is enough to put in a kettle when you boil. It can be found 
at druggists ; in the country, at other stores for 8 or 10 
cents per pound. 

Save all your suds for gardens and plants, or to harden 
cellars and yards when sandy. 



76 SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 

Poland and flour starch should be first wet with a little 
cold water and stirred smooth, then pour on boihng water 
gradually, stirring it constantly, and then boil a few mo- 
ments. Stir Poland, or muslin starch, with a spermaceti or 
iallow candle, and it will not stick to the iron, and will be 
very smooth and much nicer. 

Count your clothes pins, spoons, knives and forks, towels, 
handkerchiefs, &c., every week. 

Never pour boiling water on tea trays ; wash them with 
cool suds, and polish with a little flour and dry cloth when 
dry. If made of paper, use a flannel, with a little sweet 
oil to rub on the spots ; then rub with a dry cloth or old 
silk handkerchief. 

Frozen potatoes will yield more starch, or flour, than 
fresh ones ; it makes nice cake. Some families provide it 
simply for this purpose. Take a coarse tin grater, full of 
coarse holes, and grate a bushel or two ; wash the pulp 
throuo-h a sieve over a tub ; when you have done it in 
several waters until the starch is out, then let it settle in 
the tub and pour oft* the water. Repeat this, stirring it 
well when a new water is added, until the water looks clear. 
It is then fit for use as starch or flour, after it is dried care- 
fully. 

Indian and rye meal should be stirred and kept in a cool 
place in summer, or they will become sour. 

Save all your pieces of bread for puddings ; dry them 
well or they will mould. 

Examine your pickles, sweetmeats, and every thing put 
away to keep, that nothing be lost for want of care. 

If you buy your cheese, never get a large quantity at a 
time, especially in summer. Get your butter put up by 
some good family in the fall, for winter use, and in the sum- 
mer enofao-e it fresh every too weeks at least. 

A hot shovel on a warming pan of coals, held over var- 
Bished furniture, will take out white spots. The place 
should be rubbed, while warm, with flannel. 

Skim milk and water, with a bit of glue dissolved and 
hot, is good to restore rusty black Italian crape. It should 
be clapped and pulled dry, and it will look as well as 
new. • 



SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 77 

Bibbands of any color, sbould be wasbed in cold soap- 
suds and not rinsed. Iron tbem wet, and they will be stiff 
and nice as new, except some kinds of pink and blue, which 
will fade. These may be dyed to look as well as ever. 
Dip tlie blue in a little cold blue ink and water, and the pink 
in carmine, from a pink saucer, according to directions, and 
they will be perfectly restored. 

Marble fire places should not be washed with suds, it 
will in time destroy the polish. Aftt-r the dust is wiped otf, 
rub the spots with a nice oiled cloth, then rub dry with a 
soft ra<T. 

When you rub the knobs of your doors, use a piece 
of paste board as large as your two hands, with a small 
hole large enough to just encircle tlio knob in the centre, 
and a slit in the paper to let it in. This slipped on, will 
keep off all soil from the paint, and is a nice way of 
doing it. 

If your flat irons are rough, or smoky, lay a little fine 
salt on a flat surface, and rub them well; it will prevent 
them from sticking to anything starched, and make them 
smooth. 

Rub your griddle with fine salt, before you grease it, and 
your cakes will not stick. When walnuts have been kept 
until the meat is too much dried to be good, let then stand 
in milk and water eight hours, and dry them, and they will 
be fresh as when new. 

It is a good plan to keep your different kinds of pieces, 
tape, thread, &c., in separate bags, and there is no time lost 
in looking for tnem. 

The water in flower pots should be changed every day in 
summer, or it will become offensive and unhealthy, even if 
there is salt in them. 

Hops should be picked wiien they are full grown and 
begin to be fragrant ; by no means let them remain longer, 
as a strong wind or rain will injure them greatly. Spread 
them awhile to dry. 

Oat straw is best for the filHng of beds, and it is well to 
change it as often as once in a year. 

Cedar chests are best to keep flannels and clothes, as 
moths never are found in them. Red cedar chips are good 



78 SKILFUL hocsewife's book. 

to'- keep in drawers, wardrobes, closets, trunks, &c., to keep 

out moths. 

When clothes have acquired an unpleasant odour by 
beiuL' from the air, charcoal, laid in the folds, will remove it 
soon. 

If black dresses have stains upon them, boil a handful 
of tig leaves in a quart of water, and reduce it to a pint, 
and a sponge dipped in this liquid and rubbed upon 
them, will entirely remove stains from crape, bombazines, 
&c. 

In laying up furs for summer, lay a tallovv candle in or 
near them, and all danger of worms will be obviated. 

If you wish to select a carpet for durability, always 
choose a small figure, as they are the best cloth, and will 
do best service. 

Silver-plated candlesticks should be cleaned by pouring 
on the tops boiling hot water, to remove the grease ; when 
wiped dry, use whiting, rubbing them until bright. It does 
not not injure plated ware at all. If sockets are too large 
for the candle, wind the end with a paper, but it should 
not be in sight. Always light them, to burn oS the cotton, 
oefore setting them up, but leave them long enough to light 
with ease. 

Charcoal should never be used in sleeping rooms, unless 
in a grate ; it- is very deleterious, and frequently destroys 
life. If used in a furnace, let it be where there is air. It 
is very hurtful in a close room. 

Wrap a wet sheet or blanket around you if obliged to 
expose your person in time of fire. 

If the clothes catch fire, smother it instantly ; put on a 
blanket, cloak, shawl, anything near ; if away from any 
articles of the kind, take the clothes from the skirts, and if 
around the shoulders, draw them over and hold them fast ; 
if at the lower garments, sit upon them, any way to 

SMOTHER IT QUICK. 

A bit of soap rubbed on the hinges of a door will prevent 
their creaking. 

* Scotch snuff put on the holes where crickets come out, 
arill destroy them. 

Wood ashes and common salt, wet with water, will 



70 

stop the cracks of a stove, and prevent the smoke from pen* 
c'trjiting. 

The bed hangings and window drapery in nurseries 
and common rooms should be of those colors that are 
easiest to the eyes. Green should be the prevailing 
color. A damp mop, passed under a bed to wipe off the 
dust as often as once a week, will prevent the visits of the 
nightly foe. 

Carpets should be shook often, but with care. It is a 
good plan to hang them on a hue, and take a new broom 
and beat and sweep them, after they have been shook 
awhile. This brings out the dust from the threads. 

Silver spoons should never be used in the kitchen, unless 
for preparing preserves. 

If you wish to have your free-stone hearths dark, wash 
them with suds ; oil is good to rub in occasionally, and it 
will not show spots. If you wish to have it look like new, 
get free-stone powder of the cutters, and rub on wet, and 
when dry rub it off. 

Sour beer may be converted into good vinegar by put- 
ting into it a pint of molasses and water, and in two or 
three days after half a pint of vinegar; in'ten days it will 
be first rate vinegar. 

Ox gall is good to set colors ; one table-spoonful in a 
gallon of water is sufficient. It should be used without 
soap, and stirred well into the water. If you wash it after- 
wards use sand, and not rub soap on the cloth. 

Attend to mending the clothes of a family at least once a 
week. Stockings must be attended to, the heels lined or 
run, and thin places and holes well darned. 

In winter, set the handle of your pump high as possible 
at night. When the weather is most severe, throw a rug or 
blanket over it, or it will freeze. 

Have a heavy stone on the top of your pork, and see that 
it is kept under the brine. It is a good place to keep fresh 
meat in the summer, to keep from spoiling. Always have 
a plenty of clean dish water, and put it on as soon as the 
meat is prepared, as an invariable rule. No good house- 
keeper will allow this rule to be broken. 

Never use lye to clean tin, it will spoil it soon ; make 



80 SKILFUL HOUSEWIFE S BOOK. 

it clean with suds, and rub with whiting, and it will loot 
well, and last much longer. 

Never lay knives in hot water, it injures the handles and 
destroys the polish. 

Keep your mustard-spoon clean, and your salt-spoons out 
of the salt. 

Keep the cruets of your castor clean, well filled, and a 
piece of green baize or flannel under them. 

A gallon of strong lye put in a tub of water will make it 
soft as rain water. It is a good plan to provide this, when 
you have not a plenty of rain water, for dishes, <fec. 

Keep mats at your door, and wash them often. Always 
have the steps and entrance to your house clean. Keep 
a house cloth, and a carpet broom. 

Never clean gilded frames ; many, in doing this, have 
ruined them. Several coats of white varnish is good to pre- 
serve them, or they may. be covered. 

It is said that the half of a cranberry bound on a corn, 
will eradicate it in the course of a few nights. 

If you dry pumpkin, stew it first, dry it down well, 
and do up in small cakes, and dry in an oven a little 
warm. 

Never sit chairs to hit the paper or paint on walls. It 
soon soils them, and injures the chairs. 

Keep your brass bright, your windows clear, and furni- 
ture dusted. 

CHOICE OF MEATS. 

Beef. When it is young, it will have a fine smooth 
open grain, be a good red, and feel tender. The fat should 
l>e white, rather than yellow; when that is of a deep color, 
the meat is seldom good. When fed with oil cakes, it is 
usually so, and the flesh is flabby. 

Pork. If the rind is tough and thick, it is old. A thin 
rind is always preferable. When fresh, the meat will be 
smooth and cool; if clammy, it is tainted. 

MuxroN. Choose this by its fine grain, good color, and 
white fat. 

Lamb. If it has a green or yellow cast, it is stale. 

Veal. The whitest is the most juicy, and therefore 
preferable. * ' • 



SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 81 

Bacon. If the rind is thin, the fat firm, and of a red 
tinge, the lean of a good color, and adhering to the bone, it 
is good, and not old. 

Hams. Stick a sharp knife under the bone : if it comes 
out clean, with a pleasant smell, it is good ; but if the knife 
is daubed, and has a bad scent, do not buy it, 

CHOICE OF FOWLS. 

Turkeys. If young, the legs will be black and smooth, 
the eyes lively, and the feet pliable. If old, the eyes will 
be sunk and the feet dry. 

Geese. If young, the bill wnl be yellow, and the feet 
limber. If old, the bill and feet will be red and dry. 

Hens. If their comb and legs are rough, they are old ; 
if smooth and limber, they are young. 

Wild and Tame Ducks. If young, they will be limber- 
footed ; if fat, hard and thick on the lower part of the body. 
A wild duck has red feet, and smaller than tame ones. 

Partridges. If young, will have a black bill nna 
yellow legs ; if old, the bill will be white and the legs blue. 
Old fowls, tame and wild, may be told by their hard, rougrh, 
or dry feet. 

IIares and Rabbits. If young, they will be white and 
stiff, the ears will tear like brown paper. If old, the 
flesh will be dark, the body limber, and the ears tough. 
A rabbit, if old, will be limber and flimsy ; if young, whit& 
and stiff. 

CHOICE OF FISH. 

Cod. The gills should be very red, the fish thick at ihf 
neck, the flesh white and firm, and the eyes fresh. When 
flabby, they are not good. 

Salmon. If new, the flesh is of a fine red, the gills par- 
ticularly, the scales bright, and the whole fish stifl". 

Shad. If good, are white and thick, gills red, and eyes 
bright, the fish stiff and firm. Season, April and May. 

Mackerel, Their season is May, June, and July. They 
are so tender they do not carry or keep as well as other fish 
unsalted. 



82 SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 

Stripej Bass. If the eyes are sunken, and gills pale, 
they have been from the water too long. Their fineness I 
depends upon their being cooked immediately after they j 
are killed. 

Trout. These should be killed and dressed as soon as 
cauo-ht. When you buy thera, see that the gills are red, 
and hard to open, the eyes bright, and the body stiflf 
The season, July, August, and September. A 

Flounders soon become flabby and bad ; they should be" 
thick and firm, the eyes bright. 

Lobsters, if they have not been too long taken, the 
claws will have a strong motion, if you press your finger on 
the eyes. The heaviest are the best. The male, though 
generally smaller, has the highest flavor, the firmest flesh, 
and the deepest red. It may be known from the female by 
having a narrower tail. 

Crabs. Those of middling size are the sweetest. The 
heaviest are best. When in perfection, the joints of the 
legs are stiff, and the body has an agreeable smell. The 
eyes look loose and dead when stale. 

All fish should be well dressed and clean. Nothing is 
more unpalatable than fresh fish not thoroughly cooked. 

Fresh Fish, when boiled, should be placed in cold, and 
shell fish in boihng water. 

Fish should be garnished with horseradish, or hard 
boiled eggs cut in rings, and laid around the dish, or pas- 
try, and served with no other vegetable but potatoes. 
This, or soup, is generally eaten at the commencement of a 
dinner. 

TO keep oysters. 

After washing them, lay them in a tub, with the deep 
part of the shell undermost, sprinkle them with salt and 
Indian meal, or flour, and fill the tub with cold water, and 
Bet in a cool place. Change the water daily, and they 
will keep fresh a fortnight. 

RULES AND SUGGESTIONS. 

If meat or fish has acquired a slight unpleasant flavor, 
or does not smell perfectly fresh, when prepared to boil, 
add a tea-spoonful of saleratus, and, unless it is bad, it will 



SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 83 

remove every thing unpleasant in taste and smell. If the 
brine of meat or tish begins to have an unpleasant smell, 
scald and skim it, adding to it a spoonful or two of saleratus, 
pepper and cinnamon, or throw it away and make new with 
the above ingredients. 

Baking meats is easily done, and is a nice way of dressing 
a dinner, but a lean thin piece should never be used in this 
manner, it will all shrivel away. 

The most economical way of cooking fresh meat, is to 
boil it, if the liquid is used, as it always may be, for soups 
or broths. 

It takes fat meat longer than lean to bake. All fresh 
meat should be kept awhile to make it tender. 

In baking any kind of meats or puddings, if a stove is 
used, they will bear more fire at first than when they are 
nearly done. 

In cooking by a fire-place, cooks impose on themselves 
discomfort, and incur a great waste in fuel, by making too 
much fire. Often, in summer, a fire is made like a small 
furnace to boil a pot. Three small sticks of wood, or two, 
with chips, are sufficient at a time, if the pot or kettle is 
hung low, and but little inconvenience is felt from the fire. 
If you use a tin baker, the upper part or lid is sufficient to 
bake meats of almost any kind, if bright. Mutton, veal, 
pork, beef, &c., have been well cooked in this simple way. 
Set the dripping pan on a few coals, with a small quantity 
of water, with merely the cover over it, and it will be done 
in the same time with less fire, less trouble, and no drawing 
out of smoke. Puddings may be done in the same way, 
and also custards. 

When a pig is baked, it has a nice crisp to rub it over 
well with butter. It is better than oil, on account of the 
salt. 

REGULATION IN TIME OF COOKING. 

BOILING. 

The first caution is, that whatever is used for boiling 
must be perfectly clean. The second, keep it constantly 
boiling. Salt meat may be put into cold, and fresh into hot 
water. If a scum rises upon the surface, it must be skim- 



84 SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 

med olF or it will discolor the meat. Never crowd the pot 
with meat, but leave room for plenty of water. Allow a 
quarter of an hour for every pound of meat. An old fowl 
will need boiling three or four hours. A full grown one an 
Lour and a half. A pullet nearly an hour. A chicken 
about half an hour. 

ROASTING. 

Beef. A large roasting piece will bake in four hours, a 
smaller one iji three or three and a half. 

Mutton. A leg, or saddle, will require two hours and a 
half each. A shoulder, loin, neck, and heart, will each need 
an hour and a half or three quarters. 

Veal. A fillet, which is the thick part of the hind quar- 
ter, will require four or five hours. A loin, or shoulder, from 
three to three and a half. A neck, or breast, nearly two 
hours. 

Lamb. A hind-quarter of lamb is generally cooked 
whole, and requires nearly two hours. A fore-quarter, two 
hours. A leg nearly an hour and a half. A shoulder and 
breast, one hour. 

Pork. A leg will require nearly three hours. A thick 
spare rib, two hours or more ; a thin one, an hour and a 
quarter or half. A loin will bake in two hours or more. A 
pig, three or four weeks old, will require but about an hour 
and a half. 

Venison. A large haunch will require four hours and a 
half; a smaller one, about three hours. 

POULTRY. 

Turkey. The largest size will require three hours ; a 
smaller one, two hours; the least size, an hour and a half. 

Goose. A full grown goose will require nearly two 
hours ; but a young one will roast in an hour. 

Duck. The largest will bake in less than an hour ; the 
smaller ones in half an hour. Pricking with a fork will de- 
termine you, whether done or not. Fowls should be well 
done through, and all meats but beef; this is generally pre- 
, ferred rare done. 



SKILFUL housewife's book. 85 

COOKING FISH, SOUPS, MEATS, ETC. 

BAKED SHAD. 

In the first place make a stuffing of the head and cold 
boiled ham, seasoned with pepper, salt, cloves, and sweet 
majoram, moisten it with beaten yolk of an egg. Stuff 
the fish, rub the outside with the yolk of egg, and some of 
the stuffing. Lay the fish in a deep pan, putting its tail to 
its mouth. Pour in the pan a little water, a piece of butter 
rolled in flour. Bake two hours, pour the gravy round it, 
garnish with lemon sliced, and send to table. Any fish may 
be baked in this way. 

TO BOIL SHAD AND OTHER FISH. 

Split, wash, and dry in a cloth. Season with salt and 
pepper. Grease the gridiron, lay the fish, the outside up- 
permost, over coals, and broil a quarter of an hour or more. 
Butter it well, season with pepper and salt ; send to table 
hot. 

STURGEON CUTLETS OR STEAKS. 

Take off the skin, cut from the tail-piece slices half an inch 
thick, rub them with salt, and broil over a hot fire. Butter, 
and sprinkle on them Cayenne pepper. Or first dip them 
in beaten yolk of egg and bread crumbs, and wrap them up 
in buttered papers, and broil over a clear fire. Send to the 
table without the papers. 

TO BOIL FRESH SALMON. 

Scale and clean, cutting open no more than is necessary. 
Place it in a kettle of cold water, with a handful of salt. Let 
it boil slowly, but it should be well cooked, about a quarter 
of an hour to a pound of fish. Skim it well, and as soon as 
done, lift it carefully into a napkin to absorb the moisture, 
and wrap it close. Send to table on a hot dish, garnish with 
horseradish and curled parsely, or boiled eggs cut in rings, 
laid round the dish. Oyster sauce is best with fresh boiled 
fish. 

SMOKED SALMON. 

Clean and scale, /3ut the fish up the back, take out the roe 
and the bone neatly. Rub inside and out, with equal parts 
of Havana sugar, add salt, and a little saltpetre. Press the 
fish flat with a board and weights on it, two days. Drain 



86 SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 

from the salt, wipe it, and stretch it open, and fasten with a 
pin or stick. Then hang up, and smoke over a wood fire 
five or six days. When used, soak the shoes in luke-warm 
water, and broil for breakfast- 

LOBSTERS AND CRABS. 

Put them in boiling water with a handful of salt. Boil 
half an hour or an hour in proportion to its size. If boiled 
too long, the meat will be hard and stringy. When done, 
wipe dry and take off the shell, and take out the blue veins, 
and what is called the lady-fingers, as they are unwholesome 
and not to be eaten. Send it to table cold with the body 
and tail split open, and the claws taken off. Lay the large 
claws next the body, the small ones outside ; garnish with 
double parsely. 

TO DRESS LOBSTERS COLD. 

Take the fish out of the shell, divide it in small pieces, 
mash up the scarlet meat and prepare a salad mixture of 
Cayenne pepper, salt, sweet oil, venegar and mustard ; mix 
the lobster with this preparation together and serve in a 
dish. 

CLAMS. 

Wash them clean with a cloth, and.rinse them, put them 
in a cooking vessel with a small quantity of water, and boil 
them until the shells open, then take out the clams and re- 
move the shells. Cook them in the same water, adding 
salt, pepper, and a good quantity of butter. Roll crackers, 
and when done stir them in. Toast a few slices of bread 
to lay in the tureen, and pour over the clams. Send to the 
table hot. 

CLAM CRIDDLES. 

Make a wheat batter in the usual way, chop the clams 
fine and stir in. Bake in the common way. A nice break- 
fast dish. 

TOFRYOYSTERS. 

Make a batter, wipe the oysters dry, dip them in the bat- 
ter, and roll them in crumbs of bread and mace, finely pow- 
dered, and fry in butter. 

OYSTER PATTIES.' 

Stew some large oysters with a little nutmeg, a few cloves, 
some yolk of egg boiled hard, and grated, a little butter and 



SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 87 

as much of the oyster liquor as will cover them ; when 
stewed a few moments, take them out of the pan to cool. 
Have shells of puff paste previously baked in small patty 
pans, and lay two or three oysters in each. 

CODFISH CAKES. 

Soak codfish over night, and scald it, add to it twice its 
quantity of boiled potatoes, knead all well together, make in 
small cakes, and fry in butter. If, after having boiled cod- 
fish, you have some left, use it in the same way. It makes 
a nice and wholesome dish. 

FOR BROILING CHICKENS. 

Separate the breast from the back, beat them flat, as you 
would steak-, lay the under side to the fire until it is above 
half done. Cover them over with a square tin, or other 
convenient covering, and they will be done through much 
sooner. Great care should be taken not to let the flesh side 
burn, but they should be of a fine brown color. When the 
different parts of the chicken are done, turn over them some 
melted butter, with a little salt and pepper. 

TO BROIL A STEAK. 

Pound it well, striking it with the edge to cut the fibres, 
when sufficiently thin and tender, lay it upon the gridiron, 
and cook it over hot coals, turning it often ; when the blood 
settles upon the top, hold the platter near, and take it care- 
fully on that it may not be lost ; let the steak lie upon the 
platter until every thing is in readiness, though not over a 
minute, then lay it back on a few fresh coals until done. 
Have butter melted, and, when the steak is on the platter, 
pepper and salt it, and pour over the butter, and take it on 
hot. The meat should not be pressed to obtain the blood, 
it makes the meat dry, and greatly impairs its richness. It 
should not be commenced until everything is ready. It re- 
quires constant attention. 

TO FRY HAM. 

Cut a ham through the middle, and then you get the fat 
and lean in good proportions ; lay it in your pan or spider, 
and cover it that it may cook tender in the steam. When 
nearly done, let it finish open that the steam may evapo' 
rate, and that it may slightly browa. 



88 SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 

TO ROAST PORK. 

When you roast that which has the skin on, take a sharp 
knife, and cut it through the rind, that it may crisp well. 
If a leg, cut a hole under the twist, and stufi" it with chopped 
bread, seasoned with pepper, salt, and sage, and skewer it 
up. Roast it crisp, and handsomely brown. Make a drawn 
gravy of the dripping, and serve it with apple-sauce. This 
is called mock-goose. The spare-rib should be sprinkled 
with flour, and pepper, and a little salt, and turned often, 
until nearly done ; then let the round side lie up until nicely 
brown. Make the grarvy of the dripping, prepared with 
flour, and seasoned well with salt. Never send it to the 
table without apple-sauce, sallad, pickles, or slaw. Pork 
must be well done. To every pound allow a quarter of an 
hour. For example, twelve pounds will require three hours. 
If it be a thin piece of that weight, two hours will roast it. 

TO ROAST VEAL. 

If the leg is used, it may be stufi"ed like pork, and re- 
quires nearly as much time to bake. It should be done a 
fine brown, and often basted. 

T0R0A8TBEEF. 

Never salt fresh beef before you cook it in any way, for 
it draws out the gravy, and leaves the meat dry. If the 
roasting-piece is large, bake it three hours, otherwise two 
and a half. Make your gravy of the dripping. 

TO ROAST A PIG. 

When well dressed and washed, prepare a stuffing of 
chopped bread, seasoned well with pepper, salt, sage, and 
butter, soaked enough to make it soft. Fill the body, and 
sew it up with strong thread. Flour it well all over, and 
when the oven is well heated through, put it on dripping 
pans that will catch all the gravy. Let it stand in two or 
three hours, according to the size of the pig. Let it be well 
crisped, and of course handsomely brown. When you take 
it from the oven, mash two spoonsful of flour, with butter 
enough to mix well, and dip on the dripping a little at a 
time at first until melted, then pour it on, stirring it until 
thickened, season it well with salt, and add to it the brains 
bruised fine, and then send it to the table. The head must 
be cut off", and laid upon the platter. 



SKILFUL HOTJSEWIFe's BOOK. 89 

TO ROAST GEESE AND DUCKS. 

- See to it that they are well dressed, and then boil them 
an hour or more, according to their age. When they begin 
to feel tender take them out, and having your stuffing pre- 
pared, of bread, salt, pepper, and butter — some like sage, 
— made soft, fill the body, and fasten it up with thread. 
Roast them brown. Make your gravy of the dripping ; 
serve both with apple-sauce. Poultry, when roasted or 
boiled, should have the wings and legs fastened close to the 
body, with a cord tied around. 

TO ROAST A TURKEY. 

Prepare the stuffing with bread, salt, pepper, butter, cin- 
namon, or nutmeg, or a little lemon peel, or parsley and 
thyme, chop and mix all well together with one or two 
eggs beat well. With this dressing stuft' the body and the 
breast, and sew them with a strong thread. Koast the tur- 
key of a fine brown, not burning it. It will be well done in 
one hour and a half, or, if old and very large, two hours or 
more. Make a gravy of drawn butter and the dripping. 
Another sauce is made of half a pint of oysters boiled in a 
pan, thickened with a lump of butter rolled in flour. Only 
let it boil once. Serve this by itself, in connection with 
other gravy, for every person does not like oyster sauce. 

TO ROAST SNIPES OR WOODCOCKS. 

Flour and baste them until done. Have ready a slice or 
two of bread, toasted and dipped in the dripping, to lay on 
the dish. Lay them on the toast. Make a gravy of but- 
ter and flour mashed, with the dripping poured on and 
stirred until scalded. 

TO BOIL A DUCK OR RABBIT. 

Use a good deal of water, and skim it as often as any- 
thing rises. Half an hour will boil them. Make a gravy 
of sweet cream, butter, and flour, a little parsley chopped 
small, pepper and salt, and stew until done, and lay them 
in a dish, and pour the gravy over them. 

TO BOIL A TONGUE. 

Put a tongue into a pot over night and soak, until three 
hours before dinner, then boil until noon 



^1 

I 



90 SKILFUL^- housewife's BOOK. 

TO BOIL A LEG OF LAMB, MUTTON, OR VEAL. 

Let the water boil before any fresh meat is put in, that 
the richness of the meat may not be lost. Boil a piece of 
pork with either of the above, but not with vegetables ; 
■when done, make a gravy with drawn butter. 

MUTTON CHOPS. 

Take pieces of mutton that are not good for steak, rib or 
other pieces, have them cut small, and boil them in water 
sufficient to cook them tender ; add salt, pepper, and, if not 
fat enough to make good gravy, add a little butter ; or, if 
preferred, cut a little pork fine and boil with the meat, which 
will make it nearly salt enough, and sufficient gravy ; let 
them fry, after the water is out, a little brown. 

FRICASEED BEEF. 

Take any piece of beef from the fore-quarter, such as is 
generally used for corning, and cook it tender in just water 
sufficient to have it all evaporate in cooking. When about 
half done, put in salt enough to just season it well, and half 
a teaspoonful of pepper. If the water should not be done 
out soon enough, turn it off and let it fry fifteen minutes, 
turnino- it often ; and it is even better than the best roast 
beef. Make your gravy of the dripping. Take one or two 
table-spoonsful of flour, and add first the fat ; when mixed, 
pour on the hot juice of the meat or hot water from the tea- 
kettle, and your gravy will be nice. Serve with vegetables, 
and sallad, or apple-sauce. 

VEAL CUTLET. 

Cut your veal as if for steak or frying, put clean nice lard 
or butter in your pan, and let it be hot. Beat up an egg on 
a plate, and have flour on another ; dip the pieces first in the 
egg, then in the flour on both sides, and lay in the pan and 
fry until done, turning it carefully once. This makes an 
excellent dish, if well prepared. This way is superioi* to 
batter. 

TO FRY PORK. 

If too salt, freshen by heating it in water after it is cut in 
slices. Then pour ofl' the water and fry until done. Take 
out the- pork, and stir a spoonful of flour into the lard, and 
turn in milk or cream enough to thicken. This makes a 
more dehcate gravy, and is very palatable. 



SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 91 

TO FRICASEE A CHICKEIT. 

Cut it in pieces, jointing it well, and boil it tender with a 
slice or two of pork cut fine. When nearly done, add half 
a tea-spoonful of pepper and salt to just season it. When 
tender, turn off the water and add half a pound of butter or 
nearly that, and let it fry a while. Then take out the 
chicken, and stir in two or three spoonsful of flour previ- 
ously dissolved in cold water, and add the water from the 
chicken. Let it boil, and pour it upon the chicken on the 
platter. This makes a superior dish, and needs no vegeta- 
bles but mashed potatoes. 

HAM SANDWICHES. 

Slightly spread thin slices of bread ; if you choose, spread 
on a very little mustard. Lay very thin slices of boiled ham 
oetween ; tongue, shced or grated, may be used instead. 
Lay them on plates, to be used at suppers. 

HEAD-CHEESE. 

Take the heads, tongues, and feet, and other pieces if you 
choose. Make them clean and soak them. Then boil until 
they will slip from the bones easily. Chop and season with 
salt, black pepper, cloves, sage or sweet marjoram rubbed 
fine. Mix well and place it in a pan ; set a plate on the top 
with a weight upon it. In two days it will be cold and fit 
for use. Turn it out and cut it in shces for tea, or suppers. 

MOCK- DUCK. 

Take a steak about as large as a breakfast plate, beat it 
out, and fill it with a bread stuflBing prepared as for a 
turkey, and sew it up. Fry one hour in the dripping from 
roa-st beef or butter. Turn it and keep it covered until near 
done. When you take it up, turn in half a cup of hot 
water in the gravy that has been previously seasoned, and 
pour over. It will be thickened with the stufling that falls 
from it. 

RICE BALLS. 

Take the waste pieces of steak, or baked meat, chop fine 
and season with salt, pepper, cloves, or cinnamon. Wash 
rice and mix with it, then tie up in cloths to shape balls, and 
boil half an hour, and serve with drawn butter. 

FRENCH ROLLS. 

Cut striDs of beefsteak to make a roll as long as a knife 



92 SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 

blade, and larger than a sausage, stuff with a prepared 
stuffing, and sew up and bake, or fry in batter. Melt butter 
for a gravy. 

CHICKENS BOILED 

The wings and legs of fowls should be fastened to the 
body by a cord tied around to keep them in place, instead oi 
skewers. When thus prepared, let them lie in skim-milk 
two hours. Then put them in cold water, cover them, and 
boil over a slow fire. Skim the water clean. Serve with 
■white sauce, or drawn butter. 

B O U I LLI. 

Boil seven or eight pounds of beef in more water than 
enough to cover it. Remove the scum as it rises, then put 
in two carrots, two turnips, two onions, two heads of celery, 
two or three cloves, a faggot of parsley and sweet herbs. 
Let it boil gently four or five hours.' Put a carrot, a turnip, 
an onion, and a head of celery in to cook whole, and take 
them out when done and cut in small squares. Take out 
the meat carefully, skim off the fat, and lay the sliced vege- 
tables into the soup, and add a spoonful of ketchup to 
heighten the flavor. Pour in a soup tureen, and serve as 
other soup. 

MOCK TURTLE SOUP. 

Boil a calf's head, a knuckle of veal, a piece of ham six 
or eight hours. Reserve a part^f the veal for force meat balls 
to be added. Skim it carefully, and when the scum ceases to 
rise, season with salt, pepper, cloves, and mace ; add onions 
and sweet herbs, and six sliced potatoes ; stew gently half 
an hour. Just before you take it up, add a half pint of white 
wine. Make balls about the size of half an egg, boil part, 
and fry the remainder ; put in a dish by themselves. For 
these take lean veal, pork, and brains, chop fine, and season 
with salt, pepper, or cloves, mace, sweet herbs, curry powder, 
with the yolk of an egg to hold it together. 

MACARONI SOUP. 

Make a nice veal soup, seasoned with sweet marjoram, 
parsley, salt, pepper, mace, and two or three onions. Break 
in small pieces a quarter of a pound of macaroni, and sim- 
mer in milk and water till swelled and tender. Strain and 
add to the soup. To the milk, add half a pint of cream 



SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 93 

thicken it with two spoonsful of flour, and Btir gradually into 
the soup, and boil a i'ew moments before serving. 

VERMICELLI SOUP. 

Make a rich soup of veal, mutton, or fowls — old fowls that 
are not good for other purposes will do for soup. A few 
slices of ham will be an addition. Season with salt, butter, 
two onions sliced, sweet herbs, a head of selery cut small. 
Boil until the meat falls to pieces. Strain it, add a quarter 
of a pound of vermicelli which has been scalded in boiling 
water. Season to your taste with salt and Cayenne pepper, 
and let it boil live minutes. Lay two slices of bread in your 
tureen and pour the soup upon it. 

TO BOIL A HA M . 

Soak, according to its age, twelve or twenty-four hours. 
Have it more than covered with cold water, and let it sim- 
mer two or three hours, and then boil an hour and a half 
or two hours; skim it carefully. When done, take it up 
and skin it neatly, dress it with cloves and spots of pepper 
laid on accurately. You may cut writing or tissue paper in 
fringe and twist around the shank bone if you like. It 
should be cut past the centre, nearest the hock, in very thin 
slices. 

FINE SAUSAGES. 

Have two-thirds lean and one-third fat pork, chop very 
fine. Season with nine tea-spoonsful of pepper, nine of salt, 
three of powdered sage, to every pound of meat. Add to 
every pan full, half a cup of sugar. Warm the meat, that 
you can mix it well with your hands ; do up a part in small 
patties, with a little flour mixed with them, and the rest pack 
in jars. When used, do it up in s.mall cakes and flour on 
the outside, and fry in butter or alone. They should not be 
covered or they will fall to pieces. A little cinnamon to a 
part of them will be a pleasant addition ; the sugar is a 
great improvement. They should be kept whi^re it is cool 
but not damp. They are very nice for breakfast. 

TO BROIL HAM* 

Cut the pieces in thin slices, soak them in hot water fif- 
teen or twenty minutes. Dry them in a cloth and lay them 
on a hot gridiron, and broil a few moments. Butter and 
season with a little pepper. Cold boiled ham is better to 



94 SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 

broil than raw, and will require no soaking. If you wish to 
serve fried eggs with it, do it according to the directions; 
lay one on each slice of ham, and send it to the table hot. 

PORK STEAK. 

This should be broiled the same as beef, except it requires 
to be done slower and much longer. If there is too much 
fire, it will blaze. Cut in around the bone that there shall 
be nothing that has a raw appearance. Season with butter, 
salt and pepper. They may be cooked in cutlets like veal, 
with a little powdered sage and hard crumbs, or flour ; fried 
in butter. 

A PORK STEW. 

Take pieces of fresh pork, sweet bread, liver, heart, tongue, 
and skirts. Boil in just water enough to cook then tender. 
Before they are done, season them with salt and considera- 
ble pepper, and let them fry after the water is out to a fine 
brown. It is an excellent dish. 

TO ROAST A beef's HEART. 

Cut open, to remove the ventricles or pipes, soak in water 
to free it of blood, and parboil it about ten minutes. -Pre- 
pare a highly seasoned stuffing and fill it. Tie a string 
around to secure it. Roast till tender. Add butter and 
flour to the gravy, and serve it up hot in a covered dish. 
Garnish it with cloves stuck in over it, and eat with jelly. 
They are good boiled tender and fried in butter, cut in thin 
slices, seasoned with salt and pepper. 

BEEF CAKES. 

Chop pieces of roast beef very fine. 'Mix grated bread 
crumbs, chopped onions and parsley ; season with pepper 
and salt; moisten with a little of the dripping or ketchup ; 
cold ham or tongue may be added to improve it. Make in 
broad flat cakes, and spread a coat of mashed potatoe on the 
top and bottom of each, Laj a piece of butter on every 
cake and set in an oven to brown. Other cold meats may 
be prepared in the same way for a breakfast dish. Shces of 
cold roast beef may be broiled, seasoned with salt and 
pepper, and weW buttered ; served hot. They may be chop- 
ped fine, seasoned well, warmed with a little butter, drip- 
ping, or water, seasoned well with salt and pepper, and laid 
upon a moist toast for a breakfast dish. 



SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 95 

TO FRY calves' L I V F. i; . 

Cut the liver in thin slices, season with pepper, salt, and, 
if you like, sweet herbs and parsley. Dredge with flour, 
and fry brown in lard or drippings. Cook it well, and 
serve with its own gravy. A calf's heart may be dressed in 
this manner. Slices of cold boiled ham may be added as 
an improvement. 

PEA SOUP. 

If you use dry peas, soak them over night in a warm 
place. Early next morning boil them an hour, adding a 
teaspoonful of saleratus ten minutes before you change the 
water. Then, with fresh water and a pound of salt pork, 
boil three or four hours, or until they are perfectly soft. 
Green peas require only about an hour. 

TO STEW BEEF. 

Take a good piece of fresh beef, not too fat, rub with salt, 
and boil in water just enough to cover it. An hour before 
you take it up, add pared potatoes and parsnips, if you have 
them, split. Let them cook till tender, and turn the meat 
several times. Serve them up together with gravy. The 
water should be cooked out, which will leave the vegetables 
a light brown. Sweet potatoes are good cooked in this 
way. 

BOLOGNA SAUSAGES. 

•Boil fresh beef, chop it fine, and season it with Cayenne 
and black pepper and cloves ; put it in cloth bags, and cut 
ofiF for tea. 

FRESH MEAT BALLS. 

Boil the liver, heart, tongue, &c., chop and season with 
drawn butter. 

TO MAKE SAUSAGES IN SUMMER. 

Chop raw pork and veal fine, and season with salt, pep- 
per, and sage ; add a little flour, and do up in balls to fry, 
and 'they make a fine fresh dish, equal to those made en- 
tirely of pork. 

FRESH MEAT GRIDDLES. 

Chop all the bits of cold fresh beef or veal, season with 
salt and pepper ; make a griddle batter, and lay on a spoon- 
ful on the iron well buttered, to prevent its sticking, then a 
spoonful of the chopped meat, then a spoonful of battel 



T 



96 SKILFUL housewife's book. 

over the meat, and wbeii cooked on one side then turn, and 
when done carry them on hot, and tliey are very nice. 

A BKEF OR VEAL PIE. IB 

Take the cold pieces after bakino^, and make a light 
crusty like tea-biscuit, only a little shorter, lay the the crust 
around the dish, not on the bottom ; then season your meat 
with salt and pepper, and butter between each layer ; add 
water to make it moist with gravy, then lay on the cover, 
and bake three-quarters of an hour. It makes a fine dish 
occasionally. 

TO MAKE A POT-PIE. 

Make your sponge as you would for biscuit, only shorter ; 
when you do it up let it get just light, putting into the 
batter* a little saleratus and salt; when light take it on to 
the board, and cut it in pieces like biscuit, only let them lie 
and rise without kneading them at all. When the meat is 
tender there should be enough water to come just over the 
meat. Season it well with salt and pepper, and dissolve 
flour in cold water, and stir in enough to thicken it well. 
If the meat is very lean put in butter, and when boiling hot 
lay the crust in over the surface and shut it up close, and 
not allow it to be opened again in half an hour, when it 
will be ready for the table, as light and nice as sponge. 

TO MAKE A SOUP. 

Beef soup should be stewed four hours at least, over a 
moderate fire, with a handful of rice, and just water enough 
to keep it covered. An hour before it is done put in two 
or three comir.on size onions, and ten or twelve common 
potatoes, pared and sliced, and a few carrots, if you like ; 
at the same time put in salt to season it well, and half a 
teaspoonful of pepper. A little lemon-peel some like, cut 
in thin slices, others prefer powdered sage and parsley, or 
savory, two teaspoonsful. Stir up two or three eggs with 
milk and flour, and drop it in with a spoon. This makes a 
soup look nice ; but bread broken into the tureen is prefer- 
able, with the soup taken over it. If you have other dishes, 
this should be the first for the table. 

ALA MODE BEEF. 

Tie up a round of beef to keep in shape, make a stuffing 
of bread, as you would for a turkey, adding sweet herbs, 



SKILFUL HOUSEWIFE S BOOK. 

if you have them ; cut boles in the beef, and put in haif 
the stuffing. Tie the beef up in a cloth, and just cover it 
with water, and let it boil an hour and a half or more; then 
turn the liquor off, and let the beef brown over a slow fire ; 
turn it often. Then take it out and add a liltle water, and 
make the remainder of the stuffing in balls and lay them in, 
and when boiled they are ready to serve in a boat, or to 
turn over the meat. 

SOUSE. 

Boil it until it is tender, and will slip off the bone. If 
designed to pickle, and keep on hand, throw it into cold 
water and take out the bones ; then pack it into a jar, and 
boil with the jelly liquor an equal quantity of vinegar, salt 
enough to season ; cloves, cinnamon, pepper enough to 
make it pleasant, and pour it on the souse scalding hot, and 
when wanted for use warm it in the liquor, or make a batter 
and dip each piece in, and fry in hot butter. This way is 
usually preferred, and is as nice as tripe. 

TRIPE. 

This should be boiled tender, pickled and cooked like 
souse, or broiled like steak, buttered and peppered well. 
If not pickled, it should be kept in salt and water, and 
changed every day while it lasts. 

CHICKEN PIE. 

Boil the chickens tender, or nearly so, having them cut in 
])ieces. Make a rich crust, adding a little saleratus, and an 
egg or two to make it light and puff. Lay it around the 
sides of the pan, and then lay in the chickens ; between each 
layer sprinkle in flour, pepper, salt, and butter, with a thin 
slice of paste here and there. Then add the water in which 
they were boiled, and cover them. They should be baked 
an hour or an hour and a half, according to the size of the 
pie. 

TO COOK PIGEONS.' 

After they are well dressed, put a slice of salt pork and a 
little ball of stuffing into the body of each. Flour the 
pigeons well, and lay them close in the bottom of the pot. 
Just cover them with water, and throw in a piece of butter, 
and let them stew an hour and a quarter if young, if old 
OD^er. This is preferred to roasting, or any other way 



98 SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 

they can be prepared. They may be cooked in the same 
way without stuffing-. 

TO COOK FRESH FISH OR EELS. 

The fish should not be laid in until the fat is hot. Beat 
up an egg or two, and with a pastry brush lay it on the 
fish, shake crumbs of bread and flour mix' d over the fish, 
and fry them a light brown, turn them once, and take care 
they do not break. A more common method is, to fry 
them after salt pork, dipping them in Indian meal or flour. 
Lay the skin uppermost, to prevent its breaking. Soaking 
fresh fish or fresh meat in water is injurious ; after they are 
well dressed, they should be kept dry in a cool place, and 
•^ necessary, salted. 

SOUNDS AND TONGUES. 

Make a batter of eggs and flour, or beat one egg, and 
dip them in the egg andthen in the flour, and fry in butter, 
or boil them twenty minutes, and use drawn butter gravy. 

TO BOIL FRESH CODFISH. m 

Put it in when the water is boiling hot, and boil it 
twenty or thirty minutes, according to the size of the fish. 
Use melted butter or oyster sauce for gravy. 

TO MAKE A CHOWDER. 

Lay four or five slices of salt pork in the bottom of the 
pot, let it cook slow that it may not burn ; when done brown, 
take it out, and lay in fish cut in lengthwise slices, then a 
layer of crackers, sliced onions, and very thin sliced pota- 
toes, with some of the pork that was fried, and then a layer 
of fish again, and so on. Strew a little salt and pepper over 
each layer ; over the whole pour a bowl full of flour and 
water well stirred up, enough to come up even with what 
you have in the pot. A sliced lemon adds to the flavor. 
A few clams improve it. Let it be so covered that the 
steam cannot escape. It must not be opened until cooked, 
to see if it is well seasoned. 

TO BOIL SALT CODFISH. 

Lay it in water over night to soak. Then put it in water 
to cook, and when the water becomes scalding hot, let it re- 
main in that scalding state two or three hours. There should 
be but little water used, and not boiled at all, that it may 
not grow hard. For gravy, use drawn butter or 



SKILFUL HOUSEAVIFe's BOOK. 99 

CODFISH T () A S T . 

Shred it in fine pieces, and soak it in cold water until 
sufficiently fresli, then drain it well, and stir into it a table- 
spoonful of flour, half a tea-cupful of sweet cream, and two 
thirds of a tea-cup of milk, and one egg if convenient. 
Season it well with pepper, and let it scald slow, stirring it 
well. Make a nice moist toast, well seasoned, and lay it on 
the platter, with the fish over it, and it is ready for the table, 
and is a fine dish. Made as above, without toast, is also 
good ; with vegetables, butter may be used instead of 
cream. 

BUTTERED CODFISH. 

Shred it fine and soak as above ; when the water is well 
drained, have a piece of butter as large as an egg, melted 
and hot. Stir into the fish a spoonful of flour to absorb 
all the water, and then lay it into the hot butter, s,tirring it 
well about five minutes, then lay it upon the platter, pepper, 
and send it up. This, some prefer to any other mode of 
preparation. 

STEWED OYSTERS. 

They should be only boiled a few minutes. Add to them 
a little water, salt, and a sufficient quantity of butter, and 
pepper, roll crackers fine and stir in. Some prefer toast ot 
nice bread laid in the bottom of the dish, with less cracker 
Pjither are nice. They should be served hot. 



EGGS. 

PRESERVING EGGS. 

Put a layer of salt in the bottom of a jar, and stick th«^ 
ego-s point downwards into the salt, to make a layer. Then 
add another layer of salt, and then of eggs, until the jar is 
full. This keeps them fresh and good. They may be kept 
well in lime water and salt. They should be well covered, 
and kept in a cool place. One crcicked one will spoil the 
whole. Thev are cheapest in spring, and during September. 
If you have hens of your own, keep a jar of lime water 
always ready, and j)ut in the eggs as they are brought from 
the nest. Jars that hold four or six quarts are best, it is 
well to renew the lime water occasionally. There is no sure 



100 SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 

way of discerniiiL;- the iVi-sliucss of eggs. It is always best 
to break them separately in a saucer when used. If you 
get thera to pack, lay them in a pan of water, and those 
tbat float, will not answer to put away. 

TO BOIL EGGS. 

The fresber tbey are, the longer time tbey require. 
Three minutes will boil them very soft, five minutes will 
cook bard all but tbe yolk, and eight minutes will cook 
them bard througb. Ten minutes will cook them bard 
enougb for dressing to fisb or salad. If you boil them in a 
tin egg-boiler placed on tbe table, scald it well, and tben it 
will take five minutes to boil even soft. Tbe most conve- 
nient way to eat a boiled egg, is from an egg-cup. Use salt, 
butter and pepper. 

TO FRY EGGS. 

This is done after frying ham usually. If tbere is not 
enough of gravy from tbe meat, add some clean lard, and 
have it hot. Break the eggs into a bowl, and slip them 
carefully in the lard without breaking the yolk. Let them 
fry gradually, dipping tbe hot lard over them until they are 
cooked sufficiently without turning them at all. Then lay 
them on a plate or dish as they were cooked, and they look 
much more delicate than if they had been turned. 

POACHED EGGS. 

The beauty of eggs cooked in this way, is to have the yollt 
blushing through the white ; which should be just hard- 
ened to form a transparent veil for the egg. Have some 
boiling water in a stewpan, let it be half full, break each 
egg separately into a saucer, and carefully slip it into the 
water. When the eggs are set, put it on the coals, and as 
soon as the water boils, they are done. 

SCRAMBLED EGGS. 

Beat seven or eight eggs quite light, throw them in a 
pan, with salt and butter. Stir them until well thickened, 
and turn them on a hot dish, without allowing any to adhere 
to the pan. This is excellent with a light breakfast. 

OMELET. 

Five or six eggs will make a good sized omelet ; break 
them into a basin, and beat them well with a fork. Add 
a salt-spoon of salt, some chopped parsley, and two ouncea 



SKILFUL HOUSEWIFE S BOOK. 101 

of butter. Have the same amount of butter hot in the pan 
and stir in the omelet until it begins to set. Turn it up all 
round the edges, and when it is a nice brown, it is done. 
Turn a plate up over it and take it up by turning the pan 
up side down. Serve hot. It should never be done until 
just wanted. 

PICKLED EGGS. 

Boil twelve eggs quite hard, and lay them in cold water 
to peel off the shell, then put them in a stone jar with s 
quarter of a pound of mace, the same of cloves, a sliceo 
nutmeg, a table-spoonful of whole pepper, a little gingei 
root, and a peach-leaf. Fill the jar with boiling vinegar and 
cover it that it may cool slowly. After three days, boil the 
vinegar again, and return it to the eggs and spices. They 
will be fit for use in a fortnight. 

BREAD OMELET. 

Put a handful of bread crumbs in a sauce pan, a little 
cream, salt, pepper, and nutmeg. When the bread has ab- 
sorbed all the cream, then break into it ten eggs, beat all 
together and fry like an omelet. 

CHAPTER VI. 
V^EGETABLES 

POTATOES. 

They should be kept covered in winter to keep them from 
freezing, but in summer they need a dry place, and should 
have the sprouts rubbed off. When boiled, they should be 
washed and only pared where it is necessary. If they are 
inclined to crack, put them in cold water. When they are 
done, pour it off, and keep them covered by the fire until 
they are wanted for the table. Old potatoes will require 
an hour if large, new ones, half an hour. Never send 
them to the table wi^h the skins on, unless they are new. 
Potatoes are nice baked, but they require more than an hour 
in cookinof. 

When the skins become shrivelled in spring, they should 
be pared, sliced, and boiled in a small quantity of water, as 
they will require hut about fifteen minutes in boiling. 



102 SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 

Mash them with a beetle for the purpose, season them wel. 
with salt, sweet cream, or milk, enough to moisten, or butter 
will answer the same purpose. Dish them, and if you pre- 
fer, brown them on the top. Cold ones may be cooked in 
various ways. They are very nice sliced thin as possible, 
and warmed carefully in lialf a tea-cupful of cream, or milk, 
and salt to season them well. They make a favorite dish 
by being shced rather thick, and broil them on the gridiron 
and butter and salt them ; they are nice, and look well, 
grated, minced with the yolk of an egg made in small cakes, 
and fried in butter for breakfast. " Snow balls" are mealy 
potatoes boiled, peeled and pressed in a cloth into the shape 
of a ball. Potatoes boiled and mashed while hot, are good 
to use in making bread, cake, puddings. &c. ; they save flour, 
and less shortening is necessary. 

SWEET POTATOES. 

Should be kept in earth or sand in cold weather, or they 
will be scarcely eatable after October. The best way to cook 
them, is to bake them. They may be boiled as other pota- 
toes, peel them as others. They are also good stewed with 
fresh pork, veal or beef, or they may be half boiled, peeled, 
sliced and fried in butter, or nice dripping. 

WINTER SQUASH. 

This is a very nice vegetable. It is good to use in 
August, and should be kept in a dry, and in winter, a warm 
place. Pare it, scrape out the seeds, cut it in pieces, boil it 
in a small quantity of water, or if you are boiling potatoes, 
lay it on the top and cover it, that it may cook well. When 
done, which will be in half or three quarters of an hour, 
press out the water as dry as possible, mash well, and season 
with salt and butter. 

SUMMER SQUASH. 

They are good when yellow and tender, but when the 
skin becomes hard they are out of season. Cut off the top 
and lower part, wash and boil with other veo-etables, or 
alone as long as potatoes, and if large, and not very tender, 
longer. Have a cloth strainer ready in a pan, and put them 
into it when done ; if the seeds are large, take them out, 
but if not, let them remain, press the squash by w-indino- 
i^Q the ends of the strainer, and using a beetle to ex- 



SKILFUL housewife's BQOK, 103 

tract all the water; then lay it in the pan along, add salt and 
butter, mash well, and it will be a nice dish indeed. 
Cooked in any other way, they will be watery and insipid. 

TURNIPS. m 

Pare or scrape the outside ; if large, cut them in half, 
or quarters ; boil as long as potatoes. When tender, take 
them in a pan, lay a small plate over them to press out the 
water ; when pressed once, heap them high and press again, 
repeating it until the water is out. Then add salt and but- 
ter, and send them to the table hot. Dish them, and lay 
the pepper in regular spots, if you wish to have it look, 
well. Turnips should be kept in the cellar, where they will 
not dry or freeze. When cooked with boiled salted meats, 
they are best sent to the table whole. 

PARSNIPS. 

Pare or scrape or split them ifi two, that the inside may 
cook tender, which will be in two or three hours, according 
to their size. Dry them in a cloth when done, and pour 
melted butter over them in a dish, or serve plain. They 
are good baked, or stewed with meat. They may be served 
with boiled ham, salt cod, or any boiled meat. 

CARROTS. 

These may be cooked as parsnips, to accompany boiled 
beef or mutton. Small ones will cook in an hour. 

CABBAGE. 

All vegetables of this species should be carefully exam- 
ined and washed, cut in two, and placed in cold water 
awhile, with a little common salt thrown into it. It is said 
that this will draw out the worms or insects, and that they 
will sink to the bottom, so that greens or cabbages may be 
made free from anything of the kind. They should be 
boiled an hour or more, and the water pressed out before 
sent to the table.- They should be kept in the cellar, or in 
a hole in the ground. 

C AULIFLOWERS. 

Separate the green part, and cut the stalk close, let it 
^oak a while in cold water, tie it in a cloth, and lay it in 
boiling milk and water, observing to skim it well. When 
tender, which will be in an hour and a half or two hours, 
take it up and drain it well ; send it to the table with melted 
butter in a boat. Broccali^ is cooked in the same manner. 



104 



SKILFUL HOUSEWIFE S BOOK. 



RUTA BAGA. 

This turnip is ]aro:e, of a redisli color, and will boil in 
about two hours. Pare it, cut in quarters or slices, and let 
it be awhile in cold water. When boiled tender, cook 
them like other turnips ; either raash thera, or send them 
to the table with melted butter over them in shces. It is 
said that the sun shining* upon turnips, after they are cooked, 
will injure their taste. 

BEETS. 

Wash them clean with a cloth, rubbing them well. Be 
careful not to cut them, unless they are very large, and 
then you may cut them in two, not splitting them. They 
require, when grown full size, three or four hours' boiling. 
When tender all through, scrape off the outside, split or 
cut them in thin round sHces, and pour over melted butter, 
and sprinkle with pepper. Boiled beets sliced, and put in 
spiced vinegar until pickled, are good. The tops of beets 
are good in summer boiled as greens. Beets should be 
kept in the cellar, covered with earth to keep them fresh. 
It is said that they are nicer roasted as potatoes for ihe table. 

ONIONS. 

It is well to boil onions in milk and water, to diminish 
their strong taste. They require an hour or more, and 
when done, press out the water a little, and season them with 
a httle salt, pepper, and a little melted butter. They 
should be served iiot, with baked or roasted meats. They 
should be kept in a dry place, 

TOMATOES. 

If very ripe they may be skinned easily, but u is better 
done by pouring over them boiling water. Cut them fine, 
aiid lay them in a stew-pan, with salt, a third ol a teaspoon- 
ful of pepper, and a piece of butter ; cover them, and let 
them cook rapidly fifteen minutes. Have bvead crumbs 
ready rubbed tine, and add to it while boiling; letit remain 
until they are soft, which will be, unless too hard, in two 
or three minutes ; they must cook gently after th^, bread is 
in. They are gooJ cooked in this way withoat the bread, 
but in that case they should stew uncovered, and longer. 
Prepared in the former manner is generall} preferred, as 
it is less juicy. If cooled without the bread, they may he 



SKILFUL HOUSEWIFE S BOOK. 105 

laid on a nice buttered toast, or sent to the table plain^ 
They are kept best hung up on the vines in a dry place in 
the fall, as long- as possible, but they should not be kept 
until they begin to decay. In Asia Minor they are pre- 
served for use during' the winter, in the following manner: 
Cut them in two, and sprinkle on them considerable fine 
salt to remain over night. Next day pass through a cul- 
lender. Set the part strained through to dry in the sun, in 
shallow dishes, in d^pth an inch or less. Dry it to more 
consistence than jelly, and put in covered jars for use. If 
it is not sufficiently dry to keep, add more salt and expose 
it again to the sun. A table-spoonful will season a soup or 
stewed meats. 

ASPARAGUS. 

Cut when two or three inches long, wash and place the 
heads all one way, and tie in bundles with thread or twine. 
Have your water boiling, with a little salt, and lay it in, 
keeping it boihng half or three quarters of an hour, accord- 
ing to its age. Toast two slices of bread, moisten it with 
the water in which the asparagus is boiling, season with 
salt, and lay on a small platter or dish. Then drain the 
asparagus a moment, and, laying the heads inward, spread 
it on the toast, pouring over it melted butter and pepper. 

GREEN PEAS. 

They are best when first gathered and shelled. They 
lose their flavor and sweetness by being kept ; but if kept, 
do not shell them until they are needed. Put them in while 
the water boils, and only have just enough to cook them 
done. Season with salt, pepper, and a good supply of but- 
ter. If they have been kept, or if they are not a sweet kind, 
they are greatly improved by the addition of a spoonful of 
sugar, and, if a little old and yellow, a piece of saleratus. 
Another method is said to be an improvement. Place ia 
your sauce-pan or boiler several leaves of head lettuce, put 
in your peas, wfth an ounce of butter to two quarts of 
peas ; cover the pan or boiler close, and place it over the 
tire ; in thirty minutes they are ready for the table. Season 
with pepper and salt, &c. It is said they are better than 
when cooked in water. Green peas should be boiled from 
twenty to sixty minutes, according to their age. 



106 SKILFUL IIOUSEAVIFe's BOOK. 

STRING BEANS. 

Select those only that are tender, cut off the ends, and 
wash them well, take a handful and lay them even, and cut 
them very fine with a sharp knife upon a board or table. 
Put them in when the water boils, and if very tender they 
will require but half an hour ; if not, longer. Season as 
peas. 

Sweet Corn. This is sweeter for being boiled on the 
cob. If made into succotash, cut it from the cobs, and boil 
it with new shelled beans. It will require half an hour 
or more. Season with sweet cream or butter, salt, pepper, 
a little nutmeg, and a table-spoonful of loaf-sugar. It 
makes a most delightful dish to accompany a nice bit of 
boiled pork. 

Spinach. Pick it clean, and wash in several waters. 
Drain and put it in boiling water, and be careful to remove 
the scum. When tender, drain and press it well. Chop 
it fine, and put in a sauce-pan with a piece of butter and a 
little pepper and salt. Set it on hot coals, and let it stew 
five minutes, stirring it all the time. It requires about ten 
minutes to boil. 

Egg Plant. The purple egg plant is better than the 
white ones. Boil them whole in plenty of water until 
tender, then take them up, drain them after having taken 
off the skins, cut them up and wash them in a deep dish or 
pan ; mix with them some grated bread, powdered sweet 
marjoram, and a large piece of butter, and a few pounded 
cloves. Grate a layer of bread over the top, and brown it 
in an oven. Send it to table in the same dish. It is gen- 
erally eaten at breakfast. If you fry them, slice them, 
without being pared, about half an inch thick, and let them 
be an hour or two in salt water, to remove their strong taste. 
Take them out, wipe them, and season with pepper and salt. 
Beat some yolk of egg, and grate some bread crumbs. 
Have ready, in a frying-pan, some lard and butter hot. 
Then dip the plant first in the eggs, then in the crumbs, till 
both sides are covered, and fry brown, taking care to have 
them done through, as otherwise they are very unpalatable. 



SKILFUL housewife's book. 1U7 

# EGETABLE Oyster, OR Salsify. This excellent plant 
g >\\s like a parsnip, and is, in flavor, very much like 
fresh oysters. Scrape thera, and cut them round in thin 
shps, boil them tender in milk and water, season them well 
with pepper, butter, and salt ; make a nice toast, moistened 
with the gravy laid in the bottom of the dish, and pour 
the whole over it. You could scarcely detect the difi"er- 
ence. There should be but a suitable quantity of the 
gravy, too much lessens the flavor. It is sometimes cut 
up and parboiled, chopped fine, and fried in batter. The 
roots may be first cooked tender, then fried whole in batter. 

Lima Beans. Wash them and boil two hours, or until 
they are soft; season with salt, pepper, and butter, not 
having much gravy. Use only water sufiScient to boil 
them. They may be kept through the winter by gathering 
them on a dry day, before they are the least hard, and 
packing them in their pods in a keg. Throw salt in the 
bottom, then a layer of pods, then salt, then pods, until it 
is full. Press down with a heavy weight, cover the keg 
closely, and keep in a cool dry place. When used, soak 
them in the pods over night in cold water, the next day 
shell them, and soak until ready to boil. 

Dry Beans. Look them over, wash and soak over 
night. Cut a new piece of salt fat pork, not too large, as 
it will make the beans too salt and hard, cut the rind 
in thin strips, and change the water on the beans, and boil 
them together until the beans become soft. Take thera 
out into a bean dish, or deep dish of some kind, lay the 
pork in the centre, having the rind just above the beans, 
pepper them, and have gravy enough to almost cover. It 
should be about even with the beans, then set in an oven 
and bake an hour, or until the pork is crisped. Some add 
a little molasses, and they are more healthy cooked with a 
little saleratus. -Soft water should be used, if possible, to 
boil in, or saleratus is necessary. 

Dry Green Corn. It must be gathered when just 
good to boil, strip ofif the husks and throw them in boihng 
water, and let them remain until the water boils over 
them, then take them out, and shell oft" the corn by run- 



108 SKILFUL HOUSE\YirE's BOOK, 

ning the prong of a long fork along the base of the grain, 
This method saves the kernel whole, and is much more ex- 
peditious. Spread it thin on cloths in an airy, sjjaded 
pl«ce to dry, and stir it every day until thorougldy dry. 
When cooked, put it in cold water, and boil three hours. 
Let the water boil nearly off, add a little milk and sweet 
cream, or butter, pepper and salt, and it is very nice. If 
you wish succotash, soak dry white beans over night, and 
boil with them. It is a nice rare dish in winter and spring. 
Artichokes are very good cut in thin slices, with vin- 
egar, salt, and pepper. If cooked, they must be boiled 
two or three hours closely covered, and, when tender, served 
with melted butter. 

FrIed Cucumbers. When pared, cut them in slices as 
thick as a dollar. Dry them with a cloth, and season with 
pepper and salt, and sprinkle them well with flour. Have 
butter hot, and lay them in. Fry of a light brown, and 
send to the table hot. They make a breakfast dish. 
When used raw, slice them into cold water to extract the 
unhealthy properties. Then season well with salt and pep- 
per, with vinegar. 

Sea Kale. This is prepared boiled, and served up as 
asparagus. 

Mushrooms. Those of the right kind appear in August 
and September, after a heavy dew or misty night. They 
mav be known by their pale pink or salmon color on the 
under side on the gills, while the top is a dull peach 
colored white. They grow only in open places where the 
air is clear. After they have been gathered a few hours 
the pink color turns to brown. There should be the ut- 
most care in selecting only those that are good, as the 
others are a deadly poison. They are of various colors, 
sometimes all white, or scarlet, or yelloAv. It is easy to 
detect them when fresh, but not after they have lain 
awhile. 

Dandelions, when gathered young, are good for 
greens. They require half an hour. Milkweed tops are 
very nice when cut young : these are both improved by 
cultivation. They requive nearly an hour. Poke-root 



SKILFUL HOUSEWIFE S BOOK. 109 

is good when it is first starting from the ground, and is 
frequently brought to market. If at all too old it should 
not be eaten, as it is unwholesome. Boil it like aspara- 
gus one hour, in plenty of water. Serve with, or with- 
out toast, but with melted butter in a boat. Young 
horse-radish leaves, dock leaves, plantain, patience, &c., 
make nice greens in the spring. They require about 
half an hour. Drain and press them, to accompany boiled 
meats. 

SALADS 

Radishes, Wash them, and let them lie in clean cole 
water as soon as they are brought in. Before they go to 
table scrape off the outside skin, trim the sharp end, leave 
the stalk about an inch long ; if large, split them in four, 
half way down, and send them to the table in tumblers, to 
be eaten with salt. 

Celery. Scrape and wash it well, let it lie in cold water 
until just before used, dry it with a cloth, trim it, and split 
down the stalks almost to the bottom. Send it to table in 
a celery glass, and eat with salt only ; or chop it fine and 
make a salad dressing for it, 

Lewuce. Strip off the outside leaves, spht it and lay in 
cold water awhile. Drain and lay in a salad dish. Have 
ready two hard boiled eggs, cut in two and lay on the 
leave:-;. If you choose, it may be dressed with sugar and 
vinegar, Vvith a little salt, before it goes to the table. Some 
prefer a dressing of salt, mustard, loaf sugar, and vinegar, 
sweet oil, and a mashed hard-boiled egg. With the salad 
cut fine, and this over it. 

CoLDSLAW. Select the hardest, firmest head of cabbage. 
Cut it in two, and shave it as fine as possible. A cabbage 
cutter is the best. It must be done evenly and nicely. Lay 
it in a nice deep dish. Melt together vinegar, a small 
piece of butter, pepper, a little salt. Let it scald and pom 
over it. 

HoTSLAW. This is made in the same manner, except it i» 
laid in a sauce pan with the dressing, and just scalded, hut 
not boiled. Send it to table hot. 



110 SKILFUL housewife's book. 

PICKLES. 

Kettles of block tin, or lined with porcelain, are best 
for pickling. Iron discolors the vinegar, and brass or cop- 
per, unless used with great care, is poisonous from the ver- 
digris produced by acids. Pickles should always be covered 
with vinegar. If they show symptoms of not keeping well, 
scald the vinegar with fresh spices. Vinegar for pickles 
should never boil over five minutes, as it destroys the 
strength. 

Cucumbers. Let your cucumbers be small, fresh 
gathered, and sound. Make a brine strong enough to bear 
up an egg, boil and skim it, and pour upon the cucumbers, 
and let it stand twenty-four hours. Take good vinegar, 
cloves, cinnamon, and pepper, and boil together. Have 
your cucumbers in a large stone jar, and pour the hot 
spiced vinegar over them. If you wish them green, add a 
little alum with the spices, to boil in the vinegar. Cover 
them well. 

Melons. To make mangoes of melons you must gather 
them green, and pour over them a boiling hot brine strong 
enough to bear an egg, and let them stand five or six days. 
Then slit them down on one side, take out all the seeds, 
scrape them clean, then take cloves, ginger, nutmeg, or cin- 
namon and pepper, with small cucumbers and mustard 
seed, to fill them ; sew them up with coarse thread, or tie 
them and lay them in a jar, and pour over them hot spiced 
vinegar. Cover them, and they will keep sound almost any 
lenofth of time. 

Tomatoes. They should not be very ripe. Mix in a 
stone jar an ounce of mustard, half an ounce of cloves, half 
an ounce of pepper, with half a jar of vinegar. Lay in the 
tomatoes with a dozen of onions and cover it close for a 
month. They will then be fit for use. If the jar is kept well 
covered, they will keep a year. The onions may be omitted 
if you choose, and more spice substituted. 

Pepper. The bell pepper is considered best by some for 
pickling, and should be gathered when half grown. Slit 
one side and carefully take out the seed and core, so as not 
to injure the shell. Pour over them a strong hot brine, and 



SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. Ill 

keep them warm ; some simmer them a whole day. You 
may take them out next morning, when cool, and stuff them 
Hke mangoes, or lay them in a jar with mustard sprin- 
kled over them, and fill up the jar with vinegar. They 
require no spice, and should be pickled alone. The vinegar 
may be put on cold, with a piece of alum to give them a 
fine green, and it tends to harden and preserve pickles of any 
kind. 

Butternuts. Gather them when they are easily 
penetrated by a pin, as early as July, when the sun is 
hot upon them ; lay them in a tub, with sufficient lye to 
cover them, and stir them round with a stiff broom to get 
off the roughness, or they may be scalded and rubbed 
wfth a cloth. Soak them in salt and water a week, then 
rinse and drain them. Pierce them through with a long 
needle, and lay them in a stone jar. Boil cloves, cinna- 
mon, pepper, and ginger in the vinegar, and pour over 
them. Sprinkle through them two spoonsful of mustard 
seed previously, if you have it. They should be closely 
covered from the air. Walnuts may be pickled in the same 
way. 

Peaches. Take any kind of fine large peaches that are 
not too ripe, wipe off the down with a clean flannel, and lay 
them whole in a stone jar. Dissolve a table-spoonful of 
salt to each quart of vinegar cold, and cover them. Secure 
them well from the air. Plums and grapes, and barberries, 
may be pickled in the same manner, except the salt, with 
the stems on. Add spices if you choose. They look beauti- 
ful, and barberries are sometimes used to garnish the edge of 
dishes. 

Cherries. Use the common, or Morella cherries, pick off 
the stems, see that they are perfect, and lay them in a glass 
or earthen jar, with sufficient cold vinegar to cover them, 
and keep them in a cool place. They need no spices, as they 
retain their own flavor. 

Cauliflower. Select the whitest and closest, full grown ; 
eut off the stalk, and divide the flower into eight or ten 
pieces, scald them in strong salt and water ; let them re- 
main in the brine till next day. Then rinse and dry 
them. Lay them carefully in a jar not to break or crush 



112 SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 

them, and pour over them hot spiced vinegar. When 
the vinegar is cold, a few barberries or green grapes, put 
in the same j^r, do not injure them, and add much to 
their beauty on the table. Broccali and asparagus the 
same. 

Cabbage. Take red or white cabbage, quarter it length- 
wise and crosswise. Select the firmest for pickling, and after 
it has Iain in salt and water four days, drain it and pour 
over it hot vinegar, in which has been boiled cloves, mace, 
alspice, and pepper ; if you wish to preserve the color of the 
red cabbage, put a little cochineal to brighten it, with a little 
alum. It will be more tender to repeat the scalding vine- 
gar several times. Cover it closely. 

Onions. Peel and soak them in salt and water three 
days. Then just scald them in milk and water, drain and 
dry them. Scald the spices with the vinegar, adding a 
piece of alum, and when cold pour over them. If kept in 
bottles, put a few spoonsful of sweet oil on the top. Cover 
close. 

Martinoes. The salt and water, in which they should be 
soaked two or three days, must be changed every day or 
they will become soft. Use alspice, cloves, and cinnamon, 
and scald the martinoes with the spices in the vinegar. Se- 
cure them from air. 

Nastuhtions. They should be gathered when full 
grown, but not old, and when the stems are taken off, wash 
them, and pickle in plain cold vinegar. Capers are done 
in the same manner. Both of these are best with boiled 
mutton. 

Radish Pods. Gather them in sprigs or bunches, young 
and tender, and after letting them stand in salt and water 
three days, then pickle like cucumbers. 

Green Beans. Gather them half grown, and pickle in 
cold vinegar, with spices. 

Sour Krout. Cut cabbage fine, as if for slaw, thee 
pack down in a cask, first a sprinkling of salt, then a 
layer of the cabbage, then salt, then cabbage, until it is 
full, or nearly so. Then press it dov^'n closely, pounding 
it with something heavy to pack it close. Lay over it 



SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 113 

a round cover \Yith a heavy to stone, to ripen. It is not 
used until it has underijone a fermentation. When pre> 
pared for the table, it is fried in butter, or nice dripping, and 
is with many a favorite dish. 

IIiGDOM, is made of green melons, cucumbers, and 
onions. Take oflf the rinds, and shce and chop them fine ; 
green peppers are also used. Then add mustard-seed and 
spices. Press it into a jar, and cover with vinegar. la a 
week or two it will be ready for use. If onions are not 
agreeable leave them out. It is a nice pickle. 

Parsley may be tied in small bunches, and pickled hke 
cucumbers. 

Chopped Cabbage. When the beads are not close, chop 
them fine, and season with red pepper, salt, and vinegar, 
and it makes a very convenient and wholesome salad for the 
table. 

East India Pickle. This is a combination of various 
pickles in the same jar. Take radish pods, green peppers, 
long and round, green grapes, capers, nasturtions, walnuts, 
butternuts, peaches, apricots, cherries, and button onions ; 
pour over them a hot brine that will bear an egg, and let 
them stand four days, stirring them every day. Then 
make a pickle very warm with spices, and after it has been 
boiled, and the ingredients well dried from the brine, pour 
it over them boiling hot; mustard-seed may be added, and 
then it must be covered close from the air. This will keep, 
if well prepared, two years. 

Stone and wood are the only suitable materials in which 
to keep pickles. All pickles should be stirred up occasion- 
ally. When any scum rises, the vinegar needs scalding. 
When the vinegar becomes weak it should be thrown away, 
and new substituted in its place. Good, but not the sharp- 
est vinegar, is best for pickling. If brass or copper is 
used in preparing pickles, it should be thoroughly cleansed 
before using, with vinegar and salt, and no vinegar allowed 
to cool in them, as it would then be poisonous. 

Cucumbers may be preserved in salt or brine, for any 
length of time. But there should be a weight upon thera 



114 SKILFUL housewife's BOOK, 

to keep them well covered, or they will become soft. When 
prepared for pickling they must be soaked and scalded. 
No salt will be needed in the vinegar. 

TO PICKLE OYSTERS. 

Take those that are large, separate them from their 
liquor, and pour over them boiling water ; take them out 
and rinse them. Put them in a kettle with just water 
enough to cover thera, a table-spoonful of salt to every hun- 
dred oysters, and just let them boil up. Take them out on 
H large board, and cover them with a cloth. Take the 
liquor of the oysters, and with every pint mix a quart of 
the best vinegar, a table-spoonful of whole cloves, the same 
of whole black pepper, a tea-spoonful of whole mace. Heat 
the liquor, and when it boils put in the oysters, and stir them 
five minutes. Then let them cool. When cold, put them 
in jars, and cover them securely. 

CATCHUPS. 

TOMATOE CATCHUP. 

Take six pounds of tomatoes, and sprinkle with salt ; let 
them remain a day or two, then boil, and press through a 
coarse sieve or cullender. Put into the liquor half a pint 
of vinegar, cloves, pepper, ginger, and cinnamon, boil them 
one third away ; bottle tight. It should be shook before 
beinir used. 

MUSHROOM CATCHUP. 

Take the full grown tops of mushrooms, wash clean, 
crush them, and throw a handful of salt with every peck, 
and let them stand all night. Put them in a stew-pan, and 
let them stand in a quick oven twelve hours. Strain them 
through a hair sieve to press out all the juice. To every 
gallon of liquor put, of cloves, Jamaica or black pepper, and 
of ginger, an ounce each, and half a pound of salt. Set it 
on a slow fire to boil until half gone, then, when cooled in 
an earthen vessel, bottle for use. It sometimes needs boil- 
ing the second time to keep long. 

WALNUT CATCHUP. 

Take a peck of green walnut shells, put them in a tub, 
bruise and mash thera, and throw on two or three pounds 



SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 115 

of salt, and water enough to cover them. Let them stand 
six days, straining and mixing them until they become 
soft and pulpy. Drain out the juice by letting the tub 
stand on one side a little, with the shells in the elevated 
part. As often as it needs, turn out the liquor and con- 
tinue it as long as there is any, which will be five or six 
quarts. Then boil it in iron as long as scum arises ; then 
add a quarter of a pound of ginger and alspice ; two ounces 
of pepper and cloves, and let it boil slowly half an hour. 
The spices should be powdered, and a quantity of it should 
go into each bottle. Cork them tight, put them in a cool 
drv place one year before it is used. 

PUDDING CATCHUP. 

Mix together half a pint of noyau, a pint of wine, the 
yellow peel of four lemons pared thin, and half an ounce 
of mace. Put the whole in a large bottle, and let it stand 
two or three weeks. Then strain, and add a strong syrup 
of sugar. Bottle it, and it will keep two or three years. 
It may be used for pudding sauce, mixed with melted but- 
ter, and various other sweet dishes. 



HOW TO MAKE VINEGAR. 

WHISKEY VINEGAR. 

Take five gallons of soft clean water, two quarts of whis- 
key, two quarts of molasses, and half a pint of good fresh 
yeast. Lay a slieot of white paper at the bottom of the 
keg, and put in the mixture. Place it in the warm sun, 
and in six weeks it will be fit for use. If made in winter, 
it should be kept where there is a fire. 

CIDER VINEGAR. 

This may be made of poor cider, or that which is good, 
weakened a little with water. It should be partly drawn 
off, after the cider is well worked, leaving the casks about 
two-thirds full. A piece of wire gauze, or a linen cloth, let 
in a little, should be nailed over for a cover to keep 
out flies, and also for a strainer. When the vinegar 
is good, which will be sometimes in six months by 
frequent shaking, it may be increased by adding occa- 



116 SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 

sionally the juice of fruit, the rinsings of sweetmeat jars, 
cold tea, &c. 

SUGAR VINEGAR. 

To'.each gallon of water, add two pounds of brown sugar 
and a little yeast ; expose it to the sun six months in a ves- 
sel slightly stopped. 

HONEY VINEGAR. 

Mix one pound of honey with a gallon of cider, and ex- 
pose it to the sun, or keep it where it is warm, and in a few 
months it will be so strong that water will be necessary to 
dilute it. 

PERRY VINEGAR. 

Put thirty or forty pounds of wild pears in a tub, pour 
water over them, and leave them three days to ferment. 
Repeat this every day for a month, at the end of which it 
will be good vinegar. 

HOW TO MAKE BEER. 

WHITE SPRUCE BEER. 

Three pounds of loaf sugar, five gallons of water, with 
enough of essence of spruce to give it a flavor, a cup ot 
good yeast, a little lemon-peel if you choose, and, when fer- 
mented, bottle it up close. It is a delightful beverage in 
warm weather. 

GINGER BEER. 

One cup of ginger, one pint of molasses, one pail and a 
half of water, and a cup of hvely yeast. In warm weather 
it may be made cold, but, in cold weather, scald the ginger 
with two quarts of hot water, and the rest cold. The yeast 
put in when slightly warm. It should be put in jars or 
bottles, and securely corked. It is pleasant and lively, and 
will keep several weeks. 

COMMON SMALL BEER. 

A handful of hops to a pailful of water, a pint of bran, 
and half a pint of molasses, a cup of yeast, and a spoonful 
of ginger. 

ROOT BEER. 

Take a pint of bran, a handful of hops, some twigb 
of spruce, hemlock, or cedar, a litlle sassafras, or not, as 



SKILFUL HOUSEWIFE S BOOK. 117 

you have it; roots of various kinds, plantains, burdocks, 
dock, dandelions, &c. ; boil and strain, add a spoonful o) 
finger molasses to make it pleasant, and a cup of yeast 
When you want it soon, let one bottle stand where it is 
warm, and the rest will workcold. This for a gallon. 

MOLASSES BEER. 

Six quarts of water; two quarts of molasses; half a pint 
of yeast ; two spoonsful of cream tartar. Stir all together. 
Add the grated peel of a lemon ; and the juice may be 
substituted for the cream tartar. Bottle after standino- ten 
Dr twelve hours, with a raisin in each. 

H ARVE ST DRINK. 

Mix with five gallons of good water, half a gallon of mo- 
lasses, one quart of vinegar, and two ounces of powdered 
ginger. This will make not only a very pleasant beverage, 
but one highly invigorating and healthful. 

TO RESTORE ACID BEER. 

Stir in a small quantity of saleratus with a spoonful of 
sugar, and it is even richer and better than at first To be 
prepared as you use it. 

LEMONADE. 

Take good lemons, roll them ; then cut and squeeze 
them inlo a pitcher. Add loaf sugar and cold water, till 
it makes a pleasant drink. It should be sweet ; it is 
sometimes too acid to be agreeable. Send round in small 
glasses with handles, or tumblers a little more than half 
/ull. The best drink for parties. 

ORANGEADE. 

This is made in the same manner as lemonade. 

TO PRESERVE LEMONPEEL. 

A pint of lemon juice to a pound of powdered loaf su- 
gar. When all melted, bottle close, and keep in a dry 
place. 

ESSENCE OF LEMON PEEL. 

Grate off the rinds of lemons with loaf sugar in lumps, 
until the yellow part is all off. Take it up as fast as you 
proceed, and put it in a cup or china jar, and cover it closely. 
Oranges may be prepared in the same way. It may be used 
for cakes, pies, puddings, &c. 



118 SKILFUL n USKWjFe's BOOK. 

HOW TO make: coffee. 

PARISIAN COFFEE. 

This is made by leeching. Many prefer it tc any other 
mode. It is very easily made, and rec^uires nothing to set- 
tle it. Any common coffee-pot will answer the purpose, 
with a strainer formed to fit the top. It is made in form, 
like a cup with fine a strainer made by piercing the bottom full 
of small holes very fine, and above that another not as fine, 
on which the ground coffee is laid. Pour on boiling water, 
using the same quantity as in other modes, and cover it 
close, when the water is all drained through, which will 
be in ten minutes or less, it is ready for the table. Some 
have biggins made in the French mode, but the other an- 
swers the same purpose, and is equally good. It should 
stand near the fire while cooking. It will leave the dregs 
tasteless. 

THE COMMON METHOD. 

A general rule. Allow one table-spoonful to a per- 
son, of ground coffee. Have your coffee-pot free of old 
dregs, and well rinsed. Old grounds spoil the taste. Wet 
your ground coffee with cold water, and add a piece of fish 
skin as big as a shilling ; or a piece of a porkrind, or stir 
in a part of an egg, not more than a spoonful, as more 
prevents the strength of the coffee from extracting. It 
forms a mass when a whole egg is used, and cooks around 
the coffee, so that about half the strength is lost. Pour 
on boiling water and let it boil ten or fifteen minutes, pour 
out a cup full and pour it back to clear the spout, if you 
do not use an urn. Take it from the coals, and let it 
settle a few moments, before sending it to the table. Have 
rich sweet cream or boiled milk, with the yolk of an egg 
stirred into it, (or it will do without,) and good sugar, and 
this mode of preparation will be equally good as French 
coffee. 

Great care is necessary in roasting it; unevenly, or 
over-roasted, will spoil it; and if it is not sufficiently 
brown, it will be insipid and wanting in flavor. There 
is also a great difference in the kinds of coffee. Some is 
better flavored than others. The green and small is gene 
rally host. 



SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 119 

To have coffee very good, it should be browned just before 
it is made, though this is an inconvenience. Pick out the 
stones, and bad grains, and lay in a dripping pan, or tin, 
a layer to dry. Set it in an oven after baking, or under a 
stove a few hours, and then put it in a spider on hot coals, 
and stir it constantly until the color of rosewood, or black 
walnut; stir in a small piece of butter, and put up, and 
cover it immediately, as it evaporates fast while hot. Never 
grind until just before- using. 

CHOCOLATE. 

To a quart of water, allow three spoonsful of scraped 
chocolate. Let it boil fifteen or twenty minutes, and stir 
while boiling. Pour in rich cream or milk, and let it boil 
up. Some like nutmeg grated over a cup, and I think it 
improves the flavor. 

TEA. 

If green tea is good, it will look green when poured into 
the cups. Black tea should have a fragrant flowery 
smell. Allov7 one teaspoonful to a person, and one be- 
side. Have the water boiling, scald the tea-pot, and put 
in the tea as soon as possible ; cover it, and let it draw 
about five minutes ; old Hyson requires longer. Black tea 
should boil ten minutes. Have sweet cream and loaf sugar, 
or the best common, crushed. There should be but a 
small quantity of water used to draw the tea, and it 
should be filled up afterwards. Black tea is healthier than 
green. Mixed with the other kinds half and half, is a good 
practice. 

COCOA. 

This is similar to chocolate ; but is more delicate. It is 
much used by those who cannot drink coflfee and tea. 

The directions for making come with the article on the 
wrapper. 



120 SKILFUL HOUSEWlFE^S BOOK. 

xMISCELLANEOUS RECIPES. 

MOLASSES, ETC. 

Take new sweet cider just from the press, made fi'om 
sweet apples, and boil it down as thick as West India mo- 
lasses. Four or five barrels will make one of good mo- 
lasses. It should be boiled in brass, and not burned, as that 
would injure the flavor. It will keep in the cellar, and is 
said to be as good and for many purposes better than West 
India molasses. 

BUTTER. 

Keep your pails, churn, and pans sweet. In winter 
warm the pans and churns with hot water, in summer cool 
thera with cold. Keep your milk in summer where it is 
cool and airy, in winter where it is warm. In warm weather 
skim your milk as soon as it is thick, in colder weather 
skim as soon as there is a good thick cream, and be careful 
not to let it remain too long, as it will acquire a bad taste. 
Churn as often as you have cream enough, never less than 
once a week. If the cream is of the right temperature 
when commenced, it will not froth, and if it does, put in a 
little salt. Use no salt but the best ground salt, work out 
all the butter milk with a ladle in summer, in winter use 
clean hands. If you wish to keep it some time, put it 
down in a jar or firkin, or pickle in layers, as clean and 
free from buttermilk as it is possible, leaving a space for 
pickle over it, in the following proportions. Half a pail of 
water, one quart of fine salt, two ounces of loaf sugar, one 
ounce of saltpetre, well boiled and skimmed. When cold, 
cover with this, and it will keep good and sweet the year 
round. 

TO KKEP TOMAIOES A YEAR. 

Take half a bushel, skin and boil them well, then add a 
tea-cupful of salt, a table-spoonful of black pepper, one 
table-spoonful of cayenne, an ounce of cloves, an ounce of 
mace. Mix well, and put them in jars, and run mutton 
suit over thera, and tie them up with strong paper or 
buckskin, and they will keep well, free from mould and 
acidity. 



SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 121 

MA KING CHEESE. 

Take new milk, heat it ninety degrees, or more than 
blood warm. Have your rennet previously made, in pro- 
portions of a quart of water to a piece of rennet as big as 
your hand. Put in enough to turn it. If the milk is too 
hot, it will be tough, and if too much rennet, it will be 
strong. 

The milk after it is warmed, should be placed in a tub 
kept for the purpose. When the curd has set, take 
a long knife and cut through the curd both ways care- 
fully, and not break it until the whey is seen to separate. 
Then let it remain until the whey covers the curd well 
Theo place a ladder over another tub with a strainer and 
basket, and dip the curd and whey carefully into the 
strainer, let it lie and drain until it has nearly ceased, 
and then move it by raising the sides of the strainer. It 
should not be urged, as that will press out the cream, and 
alter the taste of the cheese. If prepared the same day, 
the curd must be salted enough to taste right, and then 
put in a hoop, strainer and ail, made smooth as possible, 
with a cover that will just fit inside, and placed in a press. 
When turned, which should be done iti two hours, put it 
in a cheese cloth wet with salt and water, and in eight or 
nine hours turn again, and pare the edges. Let it remain 
twelve or fourteen hours, then take it out and oil with salt 
butter, and place it where it will have air, but not exposed 
to flies. 

NEW METHOD. 

It is said, that those who have but a small quantity of 
milk, after making it as above described, may, after pressing 
out the whey as well as possible with the hands, press it 
compactly in an earthen or stone jar, and cover it over with 
several folds of dry linen, or cotton cloth. When this is 
saturated, remove it and place a dry one in its stead. It 
will be as clear of whey as if pressed, and the next day add 
another curd, pursuing the same process until full. This 
makes cheese salid, and free from moisture as the press. 
The labcr '-"^ much less, and the care of it comparatively 
nothino;. 



122 SK:ILFUL housewife's BOv>K. 

CHEESE MADE FROM POTATOES. 

Cheese, it is said, of an extremely fine qua/ity, is maa-i 
ufactured from potatoes in Thuringia and part of Saxony, 
in the following manner : After having collected a 
quantity of potatoes of a good quality, giving the prefer- 
ence to the large white kind, they are boiled in a caul- 
dron, and, becoming cold, they are peeled and reduced 
to pulp, either by means of a grater or a mortar. To 
five pounds of this pulp, which ought to be as equal as 
possible, is added one pound of sour milk, and the ne- 
cessary quantity of salt. The whole is kneaded together, 
and the mixture covered up, and allowed to remain foi 
three or four days, according to the season. At the end 
of this time, it is kneaded again, and the cheese placed 
in little baskets, where the superfluous moisture is allowed 
to escape. They are then allowed to dry in the shade, 
and placed in layers in large pots or vessels, where they 
must remain for fifteen days. The older these cheeses 
are the more their quality improves. Two kinds of 
them are made. The first, which is the most common, 
is made according to the proportions above indicated ; 
the second, with four parts of potatoes and four parts of 
ewe or cow milk. These cheeses have this advantage 
over every other kind, that they do not engender worms, 
and keep fresh for a great number of years, provided 
they are placed in a dry situation, and in well closed ves- 
sel*. 

DUTCH CHEESE. 

Take your milk in summer, after it is skimmed and 
thick, put it in a kettle and hang it over the fire until 
scalded and the curd has settled to the bottom, but not 
to boil. Strain it out and separate it from the whey, then 
turn it in a pan and add salt, sweet cream or butter, and 
do up in small balls for tea. They are best when fresh 
made. 

MACARONI. 

Put a piece of butter, half a pound of macaroni, a little 
salt, into hot water, and let it boil three quarters of an hour. 
Drain it and put it in another saucepan, with butter and 
grated cheese, toss up the whole together, adding two or 



II 



SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 123 

three spoonsful of cream, and when done, put it on a dish 
and send to table hot. 

MACARONI DRESSED FOR A PUDDING. 

Boil two ounces in a pint of milk, with a bit of lemon 
peel and a good bit of cinnamon, till the pipes are 
swelled to their utmost size without breaking. Lay them 
into a custard dish and pour a custard over it. Serv« 
cold. 

HASTY PUDDING. 

Have your water boiling hot, put in a spoonful of salt, 
then stir in sifted meal until the stick will stand in it. 
Stir in the meal and let it boil awhile, then finish it, 
and let it boil slowly fifteen minutes. It is good with 
butter and molasses hot, or with milk. When cold it is 
nice for breakfast, cut oflf in slices and browned in a fry- 
ing pan, with a little butter or fresh sweet lard or drip- 
ping. 

HOMINY. 

Wash it until the chaff is well out, which will rise on the 
surface of the water. Put it in cold water, and boil it four 
or five hours over a slow fire, add a spoonful of salt. It is 
very good with milk, sugar or molasses. It is much 
esteemed by children, and good for delicate persons. 

SOUTHERN MODE OF BOILING RICE. 

Have the water boiling. Allow at least a quart of 
water to a pint of rice ; throw in a tea-spoonful of salt ; 
wash and pick clean and put in ; let it boil twenty minutes, 
and if not then dry, turn off the water, and let it stand on 
the coals a few moments, with the lid off. The kernels 
will be white, and preferred by many. Use in the place 
of pudding, with a sweet sauce, or with meats as a vege- 
table. 

GREEN CORN PUDDING. 

Grate or cut the corn from the cob fine. To the corn 
of two dozen ears, add half a pint of milk, quarter of a 
pound of sugar ; when mixed, bake an hour and a half, or 
until the crust is brown. Eat simply with bitter, some add 
pepper. 



J 24 SKILFUL housewife's book. 

CHAPTER VII. 
HOW TO MAKE BREAD, BREAKFAST AND TEA CAKES, ETC 

YEAST. 

Boil a single handful of bops and a sliced potatoe, in 
tliree pints of water. In fifteen or twenty minutes strain 
it out boiling hot on two pints of flour, stirring it well. 
"When it is so cool that it will not scald, put in a tea-cupful 
of light yeast, and a little ginger ; when the whole is 
raised, put in sifted meal, as much as can be kneaded, 
then take it upon your board and work it into rolls, and 
cut it in thin slices ; lay them on tins to dry. Be careful 
not to scald them while drying. When done, put it in 
a bag, and you will have the best of yeast. Soak it at 
night and stir in a httle flour. In the morning it will 
be ready for use. This is preferable to any other, at 
any season of the year. It cannot be affected by heat 
or cold. If kept in a liquid st--ite, the same yeast may 
be put in a close jar or jug, and will make excellent 
bread. 

MILK YEAST. 

Take half a pint of boiling water, and half a pint of 
sweet milk, stir in flour to make a batter nearly as thick 
as fritters. Set in a kettle of warm water, keeping it at 
the same temperature, and in about four or five hours it 
will rise and be fit for use. It must be used immediately. 
Make your bread with warm milk or water, and put it in 
your pans, and it will rise in an hour. Made in the same 
way without milk, with the addition of a tea-spoonful of 
salt, and a tea-spoonful of sugar, will make bread equally 
good. They are both nice in warm weather. They make 
bread or biscuit very white, and some prefer it to any 
other. 

TO MAKE BROWN BREAD. 

Two quarts of luke-warm water, a half tea-cupful of mo- 
lasses, a cup of yeast; wet it up stiff"; when light, add a 
tea-spoonful of saleratus. This is for two loaves. 

INDIAN G RIDD LES. 

One quart of milk, one pint of Indian meal, four eggs, 
four spoons of flour, and a little salt; beat it well togethe/ 



^ 

% 



SKILFUL HOUSEWIFE S BOOK. 125 

and bake on a griddle or pan. Another — Take equal parts 
of flour j'.nd Indian meal, and a little salt; wet it in a thick 
batter with some milk or buttermilk, a teaspoonful of sale- 
atus — bake as above. 

BANNOCK. 

Two cups of meal, two of flour, a teaspoonful of salt, one 
of ginger, four spoonsful of molasses ; wet with buttermilk, 
or sour milk, a tea-spoonful of saleratus. Bake an hour. 
"splendid johnny cake." 

Take one quart of milk, three eggs, one tea-spoonful of 
saleratus, one tea-cupful of flour, Indian meal enough to 
make a batter as thick as pancakes. Bake quick in pans, 
well buttered. Eat warm, with butter or milk. Those 
who may not have eggs will find they are very good with- 
out. The milk should be sour, or buttermilk. 

POTATOE YEAST. 

To a pound of mashed potatoes add two ounces of brown 
sugar, and two spoonsful of common yeast. The potatoes 
must be pulped through a cullender, and mixed with warm 
water to a proper consistence. This will make a quart of 
good yeast. It must be kept moderately warm while fer- 
menting. If yeast is kept in a liquid state, it should be 
corked close in a jug, when suitably light, or in a close jar. 
A little salt and ginger added to the yeast, when you put it 
away, will improve it. 

TO KEEP HOPS. 

Hops Jose their fine flavor by exposure to the air and 
damp. They should be kept in a dry close place, and 
lightly packed. 

TO MAKE GOOD BREAD WITH GROWN FLOUR. 

Take eight quarts of flour, six ounces of butter, one pint 
of yeast of the best kind, three tea-spoonsful of saleratus 
dissolved in half a pint of warm milk ; add this to the 
yeast, and, after working the butter into the flour, add the 
yeast, and milk just enough to make the bread stifi; Knead 
the whole together. Bread made of grown flour must 
always be made harder or stifter than any other kind. In 
this way good bread may be made. It should rise and 
bake hke other bread. 



126 SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 

PLAIN FRITTERS. 

Take a quart of buttermilk, or sour milk, a pint or more 
of sweet milk, three beaten eggs, a tea-spooonful of salt, 
and a tea-snoonful of saleratus ; stir in flour enough to make 
a thick batter. Have your lard hot, and drop them neatly 
by the spoonful into tho lard, and fry them a light brown. 
Serve them with liquid pudding-sauce, or sprinkle over 
them suo-ar and nutmeg, or serve plain. 

TEA BISCUIT. 

Take two cups of cream, one of sour milk, a tea-spoonful 
of salt, and one heaping tea-spoonful of saleratus dissolved, 
stirred in last. Mix as soft as possible to roll, cut with a 
tumbler, and bake in a quick oven half an hour. This 
will fill one tin. If you have no cream, use half sour milk, 
and half melted butter, or clean dripping instead, w^hich 
will be equivalent to cream, though not quite so nice. 

EXCELLENT APPLE FRITTERS. 

Pare your apples, and cut in thin slices, and mix them 
with your flour. Stir in a quart of milk and four eggs, 
a little salt and saleratus, to make a thick batter. Fry in 
plenty of lard. 

CREAM FRITTERS. 

Take a quart of sweet milk and a tea-cup full of cream, 
four eggs beat to a froth, half a nutmeg, or grated lemon 
peel, and a tea-spoonful of salt. Stir them with flour sufii- 
cient to make a thick batter, dissolve a small tea-spoonful of 
saleratus and stir in, then fry as above. 

BUCKWHEAT CAKES. 

Mix a quart of flour with a pint of lukewarm milk (some 
prefer water), add tea-cup of yeast, and set in a warm place to 
rise. In the morning, if sour, add a tea-spoonful of salera- 
tus, and a little salt. Bake as griddles, and butter when 
hot. These are nice for breakfast, or with butter and sugar 
for tea. When you make them every day, leave a little iu 
the jar, and it will raise the next. 

SODA BISCUIT. 

To one quart of flour add two tea-spoonsful of cream of 
Tartar, dissolve a tea-spoonful of soda in sufficient water to 



J 



127 

fret the flour. They may be made in a few moments, and 
are very nice with coffee, for breakfast. 

OYSTER-CORN CAKES. 

Take one quart of green corn, rasped from the ear with 
a coarse grater, two tea-cupsful of milk, one tea-cupful of 
flour, and two eggs well beaten. Season the batter with 
salt and pepper, and bake on a griddle. This makes a 
capital dish. 

MOCK OYSTERS. 

This is similar. Grate twelve ears of corn, wash the 
cobs in a tea-cupful of milk ; add to this three eggs, two 
spoonsful of flour, one tea-spoonful of salt, and bake as 
above. They have the flavor of oysters, and are very nice. 

HOT ROLLS. 

Dry your flour before the fire, add a little warm milk, 
with two spoonsful of yeast, an egg well beaten, and a little 
salt. Let it stand all night, and bake the rolls in a quick 
oven. 

HOE CAKE. 

Scald a quart of Indian meal, with just water enough to 
make a thick batter. Stir in two tea-spoonsful of butter. 
Bake in a buttered pan half an hour. 

RICE CAKES. 

Boil a cup of rice to a jelly, add a little milk, two spoons- 
ful of butter, a little salt, four eggs well beaten, and flour to 
make a batter. Fry as other griddles, and serve hot, with 
powdered sugar and nutmeg. Another way is, to take 
rice, boiled in the usual way, and make them like flour pan- 
cakes, only use a little flour. They are white and nice. 

WAFFLES. 

Beat four eggs, mix flour and milk enough to make a 
thick batter, using a quart of flour, a table-spoonful of 
melted butter, a tea-spoonful of salt. Bake in waflSe irons, 
and season with melted butter and sugar, flavored with 
nutmeg, lemon, or cinnamon. They may be made with a 
part of boiled rice, or like common griddles. 

GRIDDLE CAKES. 

Take a pint of thick milk, or a quart of sour ; to the 



128 SKILFUL HOUSEWLFe's BOOK. 

thick add a pint of sweet milk, a little salt, a tea-spoonfu! 
of saleratus, and flour to make a batter. The thinner the 
batter, if baked well, the more tender they will be. Half a 
tea-cupful of cream improves them. Butter while hot, and 
serve with sugar, honey, or maple molasses. For a common 
sauce, take a tea-cupful of cream, a spoonful of sugar, and 
ha'f a tea-spoonful of ginger. It is a delightful way of 
eating^ them. 

CRUMPETS. 

Take three tea-cupsful of raised dough, and work into it 
half a tea-cupful of melted butter, three eggs, and milk to 
make a thick batter. Bake in a hot buttered pan in half an 
hour. 

WAFER C AKE S. 

These are nice for tea. Take two-thirds of a tea-cupful 
of butter, the same of sugar, three well beaten eggs, and a 
tea-spoonful of rose water. Make a stiff batter, and, when 
well beat and smooth, have your wafer-irons hot and well 
buttered, then fill them, and close tight; place in the fire to 
cook both sides at once, and they will be done in ten 
minutes. 

A RETIRED BAKEr's RECEIPT FOR BREAD. 

Take an earthen vessel, larger at the top than at the bot- 
tom, put in one pint of warm water, one and a half pounds 
of flour, and half a pint of malt yeast ; mix well together, 
and set away in a warm place until it rises and falls again, 
which will be in from three to five hours. Then put two 
large spoonsful of salt into two quarts of water, and mix 
with the above ; rising, then put in about nine pounds ot 
flour, and work it well ; let it rise until light, then make it 
into loaves. New and runny flour requires one-fourth 
more salt than old and dry flour. Bake as soon as light. 

GRAHAM, OR DYSPEPSIA BREAD. m 

Take three quarts of unbolted wheat flour, one quart oi 
warm water, one sjill of fresh yeast, one gill of molasses, one 
tea-spoonful of saleratus. Make two loaves, and bake one 
hour, and cool gradually. No bread should be put in an 
oven too hot, as it will prevent its rising as it ought. 



SKILFUL nOUSEWIFE''S BOOK. 129 

COMMON DOMESTIC BREAD. 

Take three quarts of warm milk or water, a tea-spoon 
of salt, a tea-cup of light, foamy yeast; stir in enough 
flojr to make a thick batter, and let it stand and rise 
until light. Then, if a little sour, add a tea-spoon of dis- 
solved saleratus ; if very sour, add three. Grease four tins, 
and do up the bread in loaves, after kneading it we'.l, 
and let it rise again on the tins. When just light enough, 
bake in an oven or stove well heated, but not too hot. 
It will be done in three quarters of an hour. For biscuit, 
work into dough enough for a loaf, a cup of butter, and 
do up small. If dripping is used, two-thirds of a cup is 
enough. 

BROWN BREAD. 

Take Indian meal sifted, and wheat or rye flour, equal 
parts, a cup of yeast, and two spoonsful of molasses. Some 
scald the meal, and others wet it with warm milk or water. 
Add a little salt, and place it in pans tc rise. \t should be 
wet soft, if the meal is not scalded, stirred with a spoon ; 
but harder otherwise. 

TOAST WITHOUT BUTTER. 

Prepare bread in the usual way, put in a pan a pint of 
new milk, and when the milk in the pan boils, have two 
table-spoons of flour dissolved smooth in a little cold milk, 
and pour in; add a tea-spoon of salt, let it scald, but not 
boil, and pour it over the bread. 

MILK TOAST. 

Boil a pint of rich milk with a table-spoonful of butter, and 
one of flour. Have ready in a dish eight or ten slices of 
bread toasted. Pour the milk over them hot, and cover it 
until it goes to the table. 

JOHN NT CAKES. 

Take a quart of sour milk, thick or otherwise, a tea- 
spoonful of salt, sifted meal to make a stiff" batter, a tea- 
spoon heaping full of dissolved saleratus, with or without a 
spoonful of flour. Butter a pan, and bake nearly an hour. 
For tea, it is improved by adding half a tea-cup of mo- 
lasses, a little alspice, a spoonful of cream or shorten- 
ing. 



130 



SKILFUL HOUSEWIFE S BOOK. 



A WARM LOAF FOR BREAKFAST. 

Make as above, put in an iron basin with an iron cover, 
place in the kitchen fireplace ; when the fire is raked for the 
night, put fire and hot ashes around and over it, and in the 
morning you will have a nice, warm, brown loaf. 

M UF FINS. 

One pound of flour, one pint of milk, a tea-cup ol 
butter, the same of yeast, and two eggs. Bake without 
tins. 

MUFFINS. 

Take a quart of warm milk, half a cup of melted butter, 
four eggs well beaten, a tea-spoon of salt, a spoonful of yeast, 
and flour to make a batter. Let it stand covered in a warm 
place two hours. Grease your rings, fill them half full, and 
bake moderately. 

DIFFERENT KINDS OF NICE CAKES. 

FRUIT CAKE. 

Take one pint of light dough ; one tea-cupful of sugar; 
one of butter ; three eggs, a teaspoonful of saleratus, one 
pound of raisins ; nutmeg or cinnamon, to the taste, bake 
one hour. Let it stand and rise a little before baked. 

FRENCH LOAF. 

Three tea-cups of light bread ; two cups of white sugar; 
one cup of butter ; three eggs ; one nutmeg; one small tea- 
spoonful of saleratus. Rub the butter and sugar together, 
and the egg, and lastly the bread and fruit. Bake in a loaf 
one hour and a half. 

SPONGE CAKE. 

Ten eggs ; their weight in sugar ; the weight of seven 
eggs in flour. Beat the whites and yolks separately, 
then add sugar and flour. The last thing before baking, 
add the juice of one lemon ; one tea-spoonful of sale- 
ratus. 

COURT CAKE. 

Four eggs ; two cups of sugar ; one of butter ; one o. 
buttermilk ; half a teaspoonful of saleratus ; half a nut- 



SKILFUL HOCJSEWIEE's BOOK. I3i 

meg; put them together, and beat them well. Add one 
pound of fruit, and three cups of flour. When suf- 

ficently beat, add the saleratus, and bake nearly an hour 

CUP CAKE, 

One cup of sugar ; one of butter ; three and a half oi 
flour ; four eggs and a half a cup of cream ; half a tea 
spoonful of saleratus. Bake in a loaf, or small tins. 

[MEASURE CAKE. 

Two eggs ; one cup of sugar ; half a cup of butter j 
half a cup of cream ; two cups and a hatf of flour ; half 
a nutmeg, and half a tea-spoonful of saleratus. Let 
it be well beat, and add the saleratus last. Bake nearly 
an hour. 

CONVENTION CAKE. 

One tea-cupful of butter ; two cups of sugar ; three of 
flour ; four eggs ; beat well. Try it, and all kinds of 
cake, with a fibre from a corn broom, inserted through 
the middle of the loaf. If nothing adheres it is done, and 
if there does, let it remain until done. 

POUNDCAKE. 

One pound of flour ; one pound of sugar ; one pound 
of butter ; eight eggs ; three spoonsful of rose water, or 
without ; beat it well, and bake three quarters of an 
hour. / 

COOKIES. 

One cup of cream ; half a cup of butter ; one and a 

half of sugar ; one tea-spoonful of pearlash ; two eggs j 

wet as soft as you can roll, and bake quick. Caraway 
seed if yoa please. 

RICH PLUM CAKE. 

Mix two quarts of flour with a pound of sifted loaf su- 
gar ; three pounds of currants ; half a pound of raisins, 
stoned and chopped ; a quarter of an ounce of mace and 
cloves j a grated nutmeg ; the peel of a lemon cut fine j 
melt two pounds of butter in a pint and a quarter of 
cream, but not hot ; the whites and yolks of twelve eggs 
beaten apart ; and half a pint of good yeast. Beat them 
together a full hour. Put in a plenty of citron and Jem 
on. Then butteryourhoop or pans, and bake. 



132 SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 

SHREWSBURY CAKE. 

One pound of flour ; three quarters of a pound of sugar ; 
three of butter ; four eggs ; beat till very light ; bake mode- 
rately. 

SOFT CAKE IN LITTLE PANS. 

One cup and a half of sugar ; the same of butter ; eight 
eggs ; and half a nutmeg ; or without if preferred. 

A LIGHT CAKE TO BAKE IN CUPS. 

Half a pound of sugar ; half a pound of butter, rubbed in 
two pounds of flour; one glass of wine or rose water; two 
of yeast; one of nutmeg; and fruit if you please. 

queen's CAKE. 

Whip a cup and a half of butter to a cream ; add two 
cups of sugar; eight eggs; flour, to make suitably stiflf; 
beat well, and bake in a good oven not over half an 
hour. It may be dropped on tins, with currants laid in the 
tops. 

SCOTCH CA KE. 

Stir to a cream two cups of sugar ; a cup and a half of 
butter; put in the juice and grated rind of a lemon. Beat 
nine eggs to a froth, and stir in ; sifted flour enough to 
make it a stiff batter. If you wish it very nice, add a quar- 
ter of a pound of citron cut in thin pieces ; almonds blanched 
and powdered fine in rose water. Bake in pans, or 
drop on tins two inches apart, with white sugar grated over 
them. 

A SIMPLE SPONGE CAKE. 

Take twelve eggs ; two cups of powdered loaf sugar ; the ' 
grated rind of a fresh lemon, and half its juice; beat to a 
stiff" froth ; then add two cups of sifted flour, and bake in 
a quick oven, but not too hot. It will bake in twenty 
minutes. 

JUMBLES. 

Take six eggs ; a cup and a half of sugar; one of but- 
ter ; beat it to a froth ; add lemon or rose water, and flour 
enough to roll; cut out with a large tumbler, arid cut 
out the middle with the top of a small canister, to leave 



SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 133 

a perfect ring. They should be rolled in white powdered 
sugar, and baked on tins in a quick oven. 

KISSES. 

Beat the whites of four eggs to a stiff froth ; add the 
juice of a lemon or a little rose water. Roll and sift 
half a pound of the whitest loaf sugar : and beat it with 
the egg. Spread out white paper on tins buttered, and drop 
a table-spoonful of this mixture on the paper. The oven 
should be only moderately hot, and when the tops have 
become hard, remove them. Have a solution of gura 
Arabic, and dip the lower side of the cake, and join it to 
another. 

HONEYCAKE. 

Three quarters of a pound of honey ; half a pound of 
fine loaf sugar ; a quarter of citron ; a half ounce of orano-e 
peel cut small ; of cinnamon and ginger, each half an ounce • 
four well beat eggs, and a pound of sifted flour. Melt the 
sugar with the honey, and mix. Roll out the cakes, and 
cut in any form. 

ALMOND BRIDE CAKE. 

Take four pounds of flour, sifted, four pounds of butter 
two pounds of loaf sugar, sifted fine, a quarter of an ounce 
of nutmegs, the same of mace ; to every pound of flour put 
eight eggs ; wash and pick four pounds of currants and dry 
them ; blanch a pound of sweet almonds, and cut them 
lengthwise, very thin ; a pound of citron, a pound of candied 
orange, a pound of candied lemon. Beat the butter with 
the hand to a cream, then add the sugar, and beat a quar- 
ter of an hour ; beat your eggs to a strong froth and stir in ; 
then add the flour, mace, and nutmeg, and heat till the 
oven is ready ; at last stir the almonds and currants lightly 
in, and bake in well buttered pans or hoops. It will take, 
if the loaves are large, three hours baking. 

COCOANUT CAKES. 

Take equal parts of grated cocoanut and powdered 
white sugar ; add the whites of eggs, beaten to a stiff 
froth ; half a dozen to a pound. There should be just 



134 SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 

eggs enough to wet the whole stiff. Drop the mixture on 
buttered tins, in parcels of the size of a cent, several inches 
apart. Bake them ira mediately in a moderate oven. 

X CHOICE WEDDING CAKE. 

One pound of flour, one of sugar, one of butter, twelve 
eggs, two pounds of raisins, two pounds of currants, a pound 
of citron, lemon, nutmeg, and mace, to your taste. Beat it 
all very light. Flour the fruit, and stir in last, and, if ne- 
cessary, add more flour. Have one large pan, or two 
smaller ones well buttered, and put in a layer of the cake, 
and then one of citron sliced thin, and so on until full. It 
will need a well heated and steady oven, to bake four or five 
hours according to its thickness. Let it cool gradually in the 
oven. Ice it when thoroughly cold. 

SPONGE GINGERBREAD. 

A pint of molasses, a tea-cupful of sour milk or butter- 
milk, a tablespoonful of ginger, two spoonsful of melted 
butter, two tea-spoonsful of saleratus dissolved, and flour 
sufficient to roll. Cut it about half an inch thick, and bake 
in a quick oven. 

SOFT GINGERBREAD. 

One cup of cream, one of molasses, a tea-spoonful of gin- 
ger, one of saleratus dissolved, a little salt. Bake in half an 
hour. 

GINGERNUTS. 

One cup of molasses, half a cup of sugar, a spoonful of 
ginger, one cup of butter, half a cup of sour milk, two tea- 
spoonsful of saleratus dissolved in boiling water, and stirred 
in after the flour. Make it just stiff enough to roll very 
thin ; cut in small cakes, and bake in a slow oven. 

bakers' GINGERBREAD. 

Four ounces of saleratus dissolved, and put in a gallon of 
good molasses, four spoonsful of ginger, mixed with suffi- 
cient flour ; have four ounces of alum j^ounded and dissolved 
in a small quantity of boiling water, kept boiling until 
wanted, and pour in last. Rub in the flour, two pounds of 
butter. Make it as soft as can- be rolled, and cut in cards. 



SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 135 

PLUM CAKE. 

One pound of butter beat to a cream ; one pound of 
sugar j twelve eggs, leave out two whites. Beat sepa- 
rately, and then mix together. Add one pound of flour ; 
^one glass of brandy or wine ; two pounds of currants j 
two of raisins ; one and a half of citron. Flour the first, 
and when ready to bake, put in one ounce of mace ; two 
of cloves j half an ounce of cinnamon, and nutmeg. 
Just as you bake it, add a tea-spoonful of saleratus dis- 
solved, and a table-spoonful of molasses. 

A GENUl.NE SPONGE CAKE 

Seven eggs ; twelve ounces of sugar -, six of flour ; a 
little rose water j if you please, a spoonful of wine. 

COOKIES. 

Six cups of flour ; three of sugar ; one of butter ; one 
of sour cream ; one of sour milk ; a tea-spoonful of 
saleratus, and one of caraway seed. 

FRUIT GINGERBREAD. 

Four cups of flour ; one of butter ; one of sugar ; one 
of molasses j one of railk ; four eggs j three tea-spoons- 
ful of ginger; a t^a-spoonful of cloves, and nutmeg; half 
a pound of currants and raisins. Add the fruit last, and 
bake in pans in an oven not very quick. 

WASHINGTON CAKE. 

Beat SIX eggs very light ; add one pound of butter ; 8 
pound of sugar ; a pint of rich milk or cream a little 
gour ; a glass of wine ; a powdered nutmeg ; a spoonful 
of cinnamon ; and lastly, a small tea-spoonful of salera- 
tus. Bake in tins or small pans in a brisk oven, and if 
wrapped in a thick cloth, it will keep soft a week. 

JELLY CAKE. 

Make a pound cake with a little less flour than usual. 
Beat it well, and have rather a thin batter. Lay your 
griddle in the oven of a stove, and place on it a cake ring 
well buttered, as large as a dinner plate, or use small 
muflin rings ; have the griddle well buttered, and lay in 
two large spoonsful and a half of the cake batter; bake 
about five minutes, and turn ; proceed thus until it is all 
baked, and when cool spread them with jelly, or marme 



136 SKILFUL HOUSEWIFE S BCOK. 

lade, and put two together ; fill a plate, and cut in In 
angular pieces. It is best when fre>h. 

Q U EE iV's CAKE. 

One pound of flour; one of sugar ; three fourths of 
butter; five eggs ; a gill of cream ; mace and nutmeg 
baked in small tins with or without currants, or sultaHa 
raisins. Ice them, and flavor the icing with lemon or . cise 

INDIAN POUNDCAKE. 

Take a pint of sifted meal ; a half pint of flour ; nut- 
meg and cinnamon. Beat eight eggs ; a half pound of 
sugar ; the same of butter ; and stir in gradually. Beat 



well together, and bake an hour and a half 
be eaten fresh, and is then very nice. 



It should 



WHITE CUP CAKE. 

Take four cups of flour ; two of white sugar ; one of 
butter; one of sour cream or rich milk ; nutmeg, cinna 
men, and lemon, with five well beaten eggs; and lastly 
a small tea-spoonful of saleratus. Bake in cups or tins 
in a moderate oven twenty minutes. 

CRULLERS. 

Six eggs ; one cup of butter ; one and a half of sugar j 
cinnamon, nutmeg, and rose water. Beat well, and stir 
m flour enough to roll into any fanciful shape. Fry a 
light brown in a plenty of lard. When cold, grate over 
them loaf sugar. Another; one egg; four spoonsful of 
sugar ; three of butter ; one cup of cream ; salt and 
spices to your taste. Fry in lard. 

AN EXCELLENT COMMON FRIED CAKE. 

One cup of sugar ; one of cream ; three eggs ; cinna- 
5non or nutmeg ; a tea-spoonful of saleratus. Cut aa 
jumbles, or in strips, and twisted, and fried in lard. 

EXCELLENT PLAIN CRULLERS. 

One cup of shortening; one of molasses, or sugar ; one 
of sour milk; one egg, if convenient ; cinnamon, nut* 
meg, or ginger, a tea-spoonful ; a little salt ; a tea-spoon- 
ful of saleratus, dissolved in half a cup of hot water. 
Fried as above. 



SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 137 

DOUGHNUTS. 

One cup ot butter; one of sugar; nutmeg, cinnamon 
or rose water, and two eggs ; worked into a quart bowl- 
ful of bread dough, on light sponge; make as hard as bis- 
cuit, and let it rise an hour or more ; add a tea-spoonful 
of saleratus to the sponge. When light, cut in squares 
or balls, and fry six or eight minutes in hot lard. They 
should be a mahogany brown. The New York " Oley 
Koeks" are dough-nuts with currants and raisins in them. 

PIES, PUDDINGS, ETC. 

MINCED PIE, 

Boil fresh beef perfectly tender, that will slip off the 
bone. The head and harslet are nice for this purpose. 
Take out all the hard gristle and bone and tough parts 
when hot. As soon as it is cold, chop it all very fine, 
and if you do not want it for immediate use, season it 
with pepper, salt, cloves and cinnamon, and press it 
(losely into a stone jar, and pour molasses over the top, 
and when after a few days or weeks it has left the sur- 
face, pour on more to keep it nice. To every two quarts 
of chopped meat, a half a tea-cupful of ground cinnamon, 
a table spoon of ground cloves, a tea-spoonful of pepper 
and a table-spoonful of salt v/ill keep it well with molas- 
ses poured over it, a year. It is far more convenient to 
have meat thus prepared for use through the winter than 
to boil every time it is needed. The proportions should 
be a third meat, and two thirds apple, chopped very fine, 
those a little sour are best. A good mince pie is a gen- 
3ral favorite, and formerly brandy was deemed indispen- 
sable in giving them the right flavor. But we are happy 
to inform our temperance friends and others, that a mince 
pie can be made equally good without either wine or 
brandy. Add a good quantity of box raisins, and season 
high with spices and molasses, adding water sufficient to 
keep them moist, made up in a rich nice paste, and there 
will be nothing wanting in flavor or quality. They 
should be baked one hour in a moderate oven. 

DRIED A P TLB PIE. 

Stew the apples soft, turn them into a pan and mash 



138 SKILFUL HOUSEWIFE S BOOK. 

them fine. Add half the peel of a lemon cut fine, or a 
little grated nutmeg, a sprinkle of salt, molasses or su- 
gar to make them quite sweet. Bake them in a rich 
paste a little over half an hour. This will be quite a? 
good as fresh fruit. 

GREEN APPLE PIE. 

Stew and strain the apples, grate the peel of a tresb 
lemon, or rose water and sugar, to your taste. Bake il* 
a rich paste half an hour. 

A BUTTERED APPLE PIE. 

Pare and slice tart apples, lay them in a rich paste, and 
bake half an hour. When done, raise the top crust and add 
sugar, a little butter, and flavor with lemon, rose water, 
nutmeg, or cinnamon. They are best when fresh baked. 

CURRANT PIE. 

Take green currants, pick and wash, add one third 
their quantity in sugar and raisins. Add half a teacup 
of water to each pie, and a single handful of flour sprin- 
kled over the fruit. They are sometimes made without 
any other fruit. Dried apples stewed, are a good substi- 
tute for raisins, and if used alone, molasses is better than 
sugar. Pies made of berries are better without spices 

CHERRY PIE. 

Stone your cherries, that you may be sure they are 
free from worms. Lay your paste in a deep dish, and 
add a good quantity of fruit ; fill the dish with molasses, 
with a handful of flour sprinkled over, then a nice paste, 
and bake more than half an hour. If sugar is used, you 
will need water and flour. This makes the gravy very 
rich, and the pie delightful. 

RHUBARB PIE. 

Take the tender stalks of the rhubarb, strip off the skin 
and cut the stalk into small pieces. Line your plate 
with a rich paste, and put in a layer of rhubarb and a 
thick layer of sugar, and so on until filled ; a little lemon 
peel improves the flavor. Cover with a crust cut in the 
middle, or prick it that the juice of the pie may not run 
out. They must be baked an hour in a slow oven. 
Some stew it beforehand, and in that case they will bake 
in half r hour, But if they are wanting in sugar, they 



SKILFUL housewife's BOOK, 139 

Will not be good ; see that there is no deficioiit^ in this 
respect, and they are very nice. 

PUMPKIN PIE. 

Fare and stew the pumpkin soft, let it remain over 
the fire, stirring it often until quite dry. When cool 
strain through a sieve or fine cullender, and add milk 
about one quart to one of pumpkin. Let it warm, after 
they are strained together, then add molasses or sugar, a 
tittle salt, nutmeg, cinnamon, or lemon, with a spoon- 
ful of ginger and an egg or two with a handful of flour. 
Bake in a hot oven nearly an hour. 

POTATOE PIE. 

Boil common or sweet potatoes until well done. 
Mash and strain them ', to a pint of the potatoes, add 
a pint and half of milk, half a tea-cup of sweet cream, 
or a little melted butter, two eggs, and sugar, salt, nut- 
meg, or lemon, to the taste. 

APPLE CUSTARD PIE. 

Grate four sweet apples for every large pie, a pint 
and half of milk, two eggs, sugar, a little salt, nutmeg or 
leraon, to the taste. Bake as a custard pie, in a quick oven. 

L E M N P I E . 

Take one lemon, slice very thin, lay it in a rich paste. 
Sprinkle over it one spoonful of flour, one tea-cup of su- 
gar, fill the pie nearly full of water and cover. Bake 
in a slow oven nearly an hour. 

RED SUGAR BEET PIE. 

Pies made of the red sugar beet are said to be deli- 
sious ; somewhat resembling rhubarb pie in flavor, 
though more rich and substantial. It is seasoned with 
vinegar, sugar and spices to suit the palate. The root 
may be used without boiling, being chopped fine. Pre- 
pare the crust, and bake as you would a green apple pie. 

C O CO A :," IT PIE. 

Grate the white part and mix with milk. Let it boil 
slowly eight or ten minutes. To a pint and half of co- 
coanut, add a quart of milk four eggs, half a cup of sweet 
6ream, two spoonsful of melted butter, a cracker rolled 
fine, and half a nutmeg. The cocoanut should cool be- 
fore the eggs and sugar are stewed in. Bake in a deep 
plate like a custard in a quick oven. 



140 SKILFUL HOUSEWIFE'S BOCA. 

BUTTERNUT PIE. 

Twelve butternuts dried and pounded, made !ike « 
custard pie, in other respects, is rich and nice. 

A Pr. AIN CUSTARD PIE. 

The crust of all custard pies, or those made like cus 
tard, should be made with the addition of a little sour 
milk and saleratus, to make it light, and then it will 
never be soaked and wet at the bottom. It is a greai 
improvement. To every two pies, allow five eggs, sugar, 
nutmeg, lemon, salt, to the taste, and bake in a quirk oven. 

TOMATOEPIES. 

Take ripe tomatoes,skin and slice. Sprinkle over a 
little salt, and let them stand a few minutes, pour off the 
juice and add sugar, half a cup of cream, one egg^ nut- 
meg, and cover with a rich paste, and bake in a moderate 
oven over half an hour. This makes an excellent and 
much approved pie. 

TARTS. 

Cut out the paste with a tumbler, then cut strips of 
paste to lay round the top neatly, and press it in the 
middle to form it deeper, then lay in sweetmeats, &c., 
and bake on tins. 

OIlANGE OR LEMON TART. 

Cut in slices and boil six la-rge lemons, or oranges, 
with a little salt, two or three hours until perfectly ten- 
der. Then take six pippins, or other good apples, pare, 
quarter and core, and boil them until they begin to break, 
then put them together with a pound of sugar, and boil 
together a quarter of an hour. Lay this in a puff paste, 
rich and nice, and sift over them superfine sugar and 
bake, and they will be delightful. 

EGG PUDDING. 

One quart of milk, nine eggs, nine spoonsful of flour, a 
jttle salt, put in a bag and boil in boiling water one 
nourand a half. Use a liquid sauce or one made of butter 
sugar and nutmeg mashed together. 

FLOUPw PUDDING. 

One quart of milk scalded. Dissolve a pint and half 
of flour with cold milk and two spoonsful of sweet cream^ 
and when free from lumps, stir it into the scalded milk. 



SKILFUL HOUSEWIFE S BOOK. ]4<l 

Beat seven eggs, a little salt, sugar to your taste, half a 
nutmeg or cinnamon. It may be either baked or boiled 
ft takes two hours to boil, and an hour and a quaiter to 
bake. If boiled the bag should be only two thirds full, 
.hat it may swell. It m.ust be put in boiling water and 
kept boiling. It must be turned in ten minutes or it 
will be heavy. If baked, and raisins are used, the} 
•hould not be put in until the pudding has cooked 
fnouo^h to thicken, or they will settle at the bottom 
flour pudding should be eaten as soon as cooked, or the,v 
will fall. Serve with ajiutmeg sauce made as above. 

CREAM ALMOND PUDDING. 

One quart of sweet cream. Beat eight eggs, and mix 
with them eight spoonsful of flour, one quarter of a pound 
of almonds -, when settled, add one spoonful rose water, 
half a nutmeg, a little cinnamon, and beat well together. 
Wet the bag, or flour the inside, and boil an hour and a 
half. Serve with melted butter and sugar^ 

POTATOE PUDDING. 

One pint and a half of boiled mashed potatoes, a tea- 
cup of sugar, half a teacup of butter, or sweet cream, 
one cup of flour, one quart of milk, and four eggs. Fla- 
vor with lemon peel, nutmeg or rosewater, a little salt, 
and bake one hour or more. 

PLUM PUDDING BOILED. 

Three pints of flour, six eggs, one pound of plums, 
a teacup of chopped beef suet, a teacup of sugar, one 
^intofmilk. Mix the Avhole together. Flour the bag, 
and boil three hours. Serve with a rich sauce, 

A PLAIN RICE PUDDING. 

Boil a pint of rice ; add a quart of new milk, halt a 
cup of butter, four spoonsful of sugar ; boil them up 
together and let them partially cool. Beat five eggi 
well, and stir in, and, if raisins are added, let them be 
stirred round, after it has partly cooked, that they do not 
settle at the bottom. Flavor with salt, cinnamon, or 
nutmeg, and bake one hour. 

PUFF PUDDING. 

Take six eggs, six spoonsful of flour, one quart of 
milk, and half a tea-spoonful of saleratu.'. Bake twenty 



l4-A SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 

minutes. Serve with sauce as soon as baked. ... .j<wy 
light. Some bake in cups and turn out in a dish. 

A BOILED KICE PUDDING. 

Boil a pint and half of rice with half a pound of 
raisins; when the rice is soft, if there is water remain- 
ing, pour it off, and add a quart of rich milk. Let i' 
boil five minutes, and then add four spoonsful of sugar 
and two eggs well beat, stirring it until the rice and 
eggs are well mixed. Season with a little salt, nutmeg 
or cinnamon, and it makes an excellent dish, and one 
easily made. It should boil five minutes, and be stirred 
often. 

A RICE PUDDING, GOOD WITHOUT EGGS. 

A tea-cup of dry rice, to a quart of milk. SeasoE 
with a little salt, sugar, nutmeg, and if you please raisins, 
and bake two hours. It will be very nice. 

ENGLISH PLUM PUDDING. 

Soak a pint of crackers in a quart of milk, the crack- 
ers should be rolled ; when they have become soft, add 
half a tea-cup of melted butter, four spoonsful of sugar, 
a gill of wheat flour, half a wine glass of wine, and half 
a grated nutmeg. Beat five eggs to a froth, and stir them 
into milk. Add a quarter of a pound of seeded raisins, 
the same of Zante currants, and two ounces of citron 
cut in strips. Bake or boil two hours. 

ORANGE PUDDING 

Grate two large oranges, and squeeze their juice. 
Beat six fresh eggs, and stir them into a tea-cup of melted 
butter, and the same of white powdered sugar , after 
which add the orange, with half a pint of cream, and 
lay in a rich puff paste in a deep plate or pudding dish, 
and bake like custard. Lemons may be used in thf 
same way. 

QUINCE PUDDIN5, 

Pare, core, and chop, four large quinces ; boil until 
perfectly soft, then mix with a pint of cream, a tea-cup 
of sugar, six eggs well beat, and a glass of rose water, 



SKILFUL H0USEWIFE*S BOOK. _43 

and a little salt. Lay it in a buttered dish, and bake an 
hour or more. 

SAGO PUDDING. 

Soak six table-spoonsful two hours in cold water, then 
boil it in a quart of milk till quite soft. Stir in half a 
tea-cup of butter, and one of white sugar, and let it cool 
Beat eight eggs very light, and stir them into the sago, 
&c. Season with lemon, rose water, or nutmeg, and add 
currants well floured, or raisins. Stir the whole, and lay 
m a buttered dish, and bake in three quarters of an hour. 
It may be served cold. 



Take eight or ten pleasant apples, and dig out the cores, 
leaving them whole. Prepare a cus, ard, six eggs to a 
quart, flavor with lemon, orange, or nutmeg, and a littU 
salt, and when the apples are laid in a pudding dish, pou. 
the custard over them, and bake half an hour 

BAKED BREAD PUDDING. 

Cut slices, or the broken pieces of bread are equally 
good, soak in milk until soft. Then add two eggs to a 
quart, a little salt, or butter, lemon peel, nutmeg, or 
cinnamon, and sugar. Bake an hour. This is whole- 
some, and best for common use. 

B AK E D I N DI AN P UD DIN G . 

Scald the milk, and stir in the sifted meal to make a 
batter not very thick. Then add two spoonsful of flour, 
molasses to your taste, a little salt, lemon, nutmeg, or 
cinnamon, and bake two hours and a half. Made in this 
way, it is quite as good as when made with eggs. 

TO BOIL RICE WHOLE. 

Have a quart of water boiling hot, with half a tea- 
spoon of salt. Wash a pint of rice and throw in, let it 
boil twenty minutes. If the water is not evaporated, pour 
it ofl", and let it stand on coals two minutes. It is then 
leady for the table. Serve with a sauce flavored with 
nutmeg. 



!44 SKTLFUL housewife's BOOK 

A BOir-ED APPLE PUDDING: 

Boil dried apples nearly done. Save a tea-cup of the 
juice of the apple, for a sauce. Chop them, and mis 
with soaked bread, and boil in a bag. Make a sauce of 
melted butter, sugar, and flour, with enough of the apple 
juice to give it the flavor of wine, and spice with nutmeg. 
It is excellent. 

APPLE DUMPLINGS. 

Lay into rolled paste, apples quartered and cored ; roll 
up, and boil in a cloth one hour. Serve with a sauce 
made of melted butter and sugar, flavored with nutmeg. 
Another method. Lay the apples in a small kettle with 
water sufficient to boil them tender, with the paste over. 
Cover it close, and boil half an hour. Serve with sauce. 
Another. Lay the quarters in paste cut round, and tie 
up in cloths to make them like "snow balls." Serve 
with the same sauce. 

BAKED APPLE DUMPLINGS. 

Take a pint of stewed apple sifted, those that are a 
little tart are best, two cups of sugar, eight eggs, half a 
cup of butter, one quart of milk, and rose water, lemon 
nutmeg, or cinnamon to your taste. Bake one hour. 

ICE CK.EAMS. 

Mix two table-spoonsful of arrow root, powder or fine 
starch, with milk sufficient to make a thin paste, stirring 
it till perfectly smooth. Boil together a pint of cream 
and a pint of milk, and, while boiling, stir in the prepar- 
ation of arrow root, and let it boil again ; then take it oflT 
and stir in half a pound of loaf sugar, and let it boil 
again. If vanillais preferred, take the half of a bean, split 
it in pieces, and boil it in a little milk to extract the flavor, 
and stir in with the arrow root ; but if lemon, add a few 
drops after it is boiled, or, if strawberry, express the 
juice of a quart of ripe strawberries, and add to the 
powdered sugar, to boil with the whole. Then strain 
and put in a freezer, placed in a tub that has a hole in 
the bottom to let out the water, and surround the freezer 
on all sides with broken ice and coarse salt. While 



SKILFUL housewife's BOOK, 145 

freezing, stir it well half an hour, scraping it down from 
the sides. When frozen, transfer it to a mould, surround 
it with fresh salt and ice, and freeze it over again. 
Another method. One pint of cream, three pints of new 
aiilU, one poun.d of loaf sugar, two lemons, and half of a 
ranilla bean. Boil and stir the sugar in gradually. If 
you have no lemon, use four eggs. Freeze as above. 

SNOW CREAM. 

Beat the whites of four e^gs to a froth ; and stir in two 
spoonsful of white sugar ; flavor with rose water or lem- 
on j add a pint of thick sweet cream ; and beat the whole 
together, to a froth. This is to be served with a desert 
of sjveet meats. 

WHIP C R E A M.~ 

Take a pint and a half of cream ; the whites of three 
eggs; white sugar to your taste ; and a part of the juice 
of a lemon ; then whip it with a whisk, made of a bunch 
of quills, or in a whip churn ; flavored with the rind of 
grated lemon or rose water ; and as the foam rises, lay 
it into jelly glases. If preferred, the glass may be half 
filled with jelly, and the whip poured over it. 

LEMON CREAM. 

Take a pint of thick cream ; the yolks of two eggs 
well beaten ; a cup of white sugar; and the rind of a 
lemon cut thin ; boil it up ; then stir it until almost cold j 
put the juice of a lemon in a dish, and pour the cream 
upon it, stirring well until cold. Serve in a large glass 
dish, or in custard cups, either alone or with sweetmeats. 

ORANGE CREAM. 

Pare and squeeze two oranges on a cup of finely pow- 
dered sugar, with half a cup of water. Beat four eggs 
well, add, and beat them together some time. Strain 
the whole through flannel into a sauce -pan ; set it over 
a gentle fire, and stir it one way until thick and scalding 
hot, not boiling, or it will curdle. If lumps of sugar are 
rubbed hard on the lemons before they are pared, the 
flavor will be better extracted ; or they may be grated. 
Serve as a custard in jelly glasses. 



146 6KILFLL KOUSEWaFE's B. OB . 

SNOW OUSTAD. 

Make a rich custard ; eight eggs to a quart of new 
milk ; a gill of sweet cream ; a little salt ; and flavored 
with lemon, nutmeg, orange, or rose water ; boil until 
just thick, and lay in a dessert or pudding dish with a 
whip over the whole. Serve as you would a pudding 

GOOSEBERRY OR. APPLE CUSTARD. 

Boil your fruit ; pulp it through a sieve ; and seasca 
with sugar and flavor the apple with grated lemon or nut- 
meg. Lay in a thick layer of the fruit in a dish, mix 3 
pint of milk ; a pint of sweet cream ; the yolks of two 
eggs ; and scald it over the fire, stirring it ; add sugar to 
the taste ; and let it get cold. Lay it over the fruit 
with a spoon, and over the whole a whip. Some prefer 
the whip made the day before. 

CHARLOTTE DE RUSSE. 

Take six eggs to a pint of milk; sugar to sweeten it, 
8train into it an ounce of dissolved isinglass ; when baked 
let it cool, make a whip and mix with the custard, cool it 
in forms. Lay in the bottom of the dish thin slices of 
sponge cake alternately, with jelly around the d.sh. 

TRANSPARENT LEMON JELLY. 

Pare two dozen as thin as possible. Put eight lemons 
with the rinds into hot, not boiling water ; cover it three or 
four hours. Rub some loaf sugar on the rinds before peel- 
ing, to extract the flavor, put in a china dish with a pound 
and half of fine sugar, then add the water and three quarts 
of boiling milk; mix and pour through a jelly bag until 
c^ear. 

JELLY F'tOM FEET. 

Boil four calves feet, when they have boiled to pieces, 
strain through the cullender, when cold take off the grease. 
There should be two quarts of the jelly, put this in tho 
skillet, add one quart of white wine, one pound and a half 
of powdered white sugar, the rinds of two lemons. Wash 
the outside of eight eggs, crush shells and all and put them 
in, stir it occasionally until i^ is melted, but do not touch it 



» SKILFUL HOUSE AiFE's BOUK. i'» 

after. When it has boiled to look quite cleai , ther .i&* a 
pitcher under, and if you choose, place it afterv\ jA in 
moulds, The bao- should be made of cotton. 

BLANC MANGE. 

Break one ounce of isinglass in very- small pieces aad 
wash well. Pour on a pint of boiling water, n^xl mornii>g 
add a quart of milk, and boil until the isinglass is vlissolvevl 
and strain it. Put in two ounces of blanched .ilmond.'i 
pounded, sweeten with loaf sugar and turn in the mould 
Stick thin slips of almonds all over the blanc mange and 
dress around with syllabub, or whip cream. 

FLUMMERY. 

Four calves feet well cleansed, add four quarts of water 
and boil down to one. Strain it, and when cold, take off 
the top and the sediment. Then add a pint of cream,a lii.le 
rose water or lemon, sweeten to your taste, boil up and 
pour into cups to stiffen. 

ANOTHER LEMON JELLY. 

Pare four lemons, squeeze the juice and strain it, put tl e 
rinds and juice in a quart of water and sweeten with lo'if 
sugar to your taste, add the white of six eggs beat to a froih. 
Set it over the fire and stir until it thickens, but not to buil. 
When cold strain through a sieve, put on the fire, add the 
yolk of the eggs, stir till thick, and serve up in glasses. 

ANOTHER BLANC MANGE. 

Take one ounce of isinglass, two quarts of milk, the peel 
of two lemons, sugar and spice to suit the taste. When 
dissolved partly, bring the whole to a boiling heat, strain it, 
and when nearly cool, stir it well to raise the cream so 
that it will rise while cooling. Pour it into mould?' first 
wet with cold water. It is best to make it the day before it 
is used; if it does not slip out easily, wrap a cloth wot in hot 
water around the moulds, then loosen it with a kiiife and 
turn out into glass dishes. It may be set to cool in teacups 
or wine glasses, and if you prefer it, may be stained, green, 
with the juice of spinach, yellow, with saflTron, red, with 
ochineal, infused a half hour in a little brandy 



1A8 skilfu] housewife's book. 

plum anl' cherry charlotte. 
KStone a quart of ripe plums or cherries, ai... Jicsu- them 
with ii pound of brown sugar. Cut slices of bread and but- 
ter, md lay them round the sides and in the botiom of a 
large deep dish. Pour in ths fruit boiling hot, cover the 
bowl, rind set it away to cool gradually. When quite cold, 
serve vvith svveel cream . TJiis is very nice in hot weather 

RASPBERRY CHARLOTTE. 

Take a dozen of oblong sponge cake, commonly called 
Naples hisruit. Spreid over each a thick layer of rasp- 
berry jam, and plac« them round and in the bottom of a 
glass bowl. Take a pint of cream and eight spoonsful of 
raspberry, or currant jelly, and beat together, and fill up 
the liOwl with it. If you have not cream, take the white 
ol six eggs, and six spoonsful of jelly, and beat very light 
in the same way. A charlotte may be made with any 
kind of fruit jellj', marmalade, or jam. It can be prepa- 
red at short notice, as it is a favorite dish. 

CONVENIENT TABLE JELLIES. 

Use three good sized lemons cut in thin slices, the skin 
olTfrotn on«;. Take one pound of white sugar, two quarts 
of cold water, two ounces of isinglass previously soaked 
hall an hour, spices to suit the taste. If you wish it trans- 
parent add the white of three or four eggs. Stir it well, 
and ItoJl the whole one minute, then pour through a jelly 
bag, ton inches across, narrowing to a point at the bottom. 
The liquid that runs first should be poured back until it 
runs clear. For wine jelly, add one pint ; the liquid from 
preserves and fruit jellies, may be used according to taste. 
Put into glasses or moulds previously wet; when cold it is 
ready for use. 

TAPIOCA PUDDING. 

To one pint of water, add a teacup of of tapioca, and soak 
ovor night. In tlie morning add two beaten eggs, three 
pints of milk, and bake as any other. Another. Haifa 
piiit of tapioca dissolved in a quart of milk, while boiling. 
Add six eggs when nearly cold, with nutmeg, or cinnamon. 
Bake ten or fifteen minutes. 



SKILFUL ITOUSE\\"IFE's BOOK. 1411 

APPLE CUST AR D . 

Pare core and blice twelve pipp ns. Boil a pint of water, 
a pound of Joaf sugar, and twelve cloves, and skim. Put in 
the apples and stew until the liquia is nearly gone. Lay 
them in a deep dish, take out the cloves when they are cold; 
pour in a quart of custard, and 1 t it cook by se tingf 
the dish in boiling water until it St ts. The same \i'ith 
auince but more sugar. 

nelson's patent *' opaque G tJLATlNE." 

Soak one ounce of opaque gelatine in half a pint of cold 
water ten minutes. Then add the same quantity of boiling 
water, stir it until dissolved, and add th( juice and peel of 
two'lemons, with wine and sugar to ma'ce one quart. Stir 
in the white and shell of an egg, well bt it together. Then 
boil it five minutes without stirring it. 1 temove it from the 
fire two minutes and strain through a close flannel bag. 
This is highly recommended for blanv^ mange, and all 
kinds of jellies. It is said to be in every respect, better and 
cheaper than isinglass or other gelatines. One ounce will 
form a quart of calves foot, mange, lemon, and other jellies 
sufficiently firm to turn out of moulds. It is also used in 
soups with less meat. 

FLOATING ISLAND. 

Take the white of an egg or more as you want ; beat 
to a froth, add a glass of currant jelly, beat them together 
until a spoon will stand up in it. Drojia spoonful at a 
Hme on a glass bowl of sweet cream. 

ARROW ROOT BLANC M 1 N G E . 

Take a tea-cupful of arrow root, dissolvfi in a little cold 
water. Tak-e half a pint of new milk, s veeten with loaf 
sugar to your taste, or very sweet, add th i grated pee) of a 
Aemon, a grated nutmeg and pounded rrn ce, and boil until 
highly flavored. Strain into a pint of mi k and half a pint 
of cream ; add two thirds of a cup of su far, and boil ten 
minutes ; then strain it boiling hot into th; arrow-root, after 
the water has been poured off*, stir it ccns^antly until thick* 
find then put in moulds to congeal. 



150 SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 

COLD CUSTARD. 

Soak a piece of rennet in wine, and you will be able tc 
have custard at any time without eggs or cooking iL 
Sweeten and flavor a quart of sweet rich milk, if you like, 
add a little salt. Then stir in a spoonful or two of the ren- 
net wijie, and turn into cups. When it is thick like a rice 
custard, grate over a little nutmeg, and you will have a 
delicale custard. 



RF'LES FOR PRESERVING. 

A 11 delicat* fruit should be done gently, and not allowed 
to r.'.main no /re than half an hour before it is laid on a dish 
to ' ool, an^i then returned. Continue so until transparent. 
Pu' no mo e in the pan than can lie without crowding. A 
po md of ..ugar tc a pound of fruit, is a general rule for acid 
fr (its, I 'reserving kettles should be broad rather than deep. 
The flavor of the fruit is preserved by covering the kettle, 
li sweetmeats become candied, set the jar in water, and let 
ii boil around it. Tissue paper cut to nicely fit over the 
top, i^ better to preserve from mould, &c., than white paper 
wet with brandy. To clarify sugar ; to every eight pounds 
of ougar, stir into two quarts of water the whites of two 
e«'0-s, and mix with the suafar. While it is meliinof, stir 
irequently. Then place it over a moderate fire, and as it 
boils take ofTthe scum. When clear, put in your fruit as 
above. Large fruit that is done whole, should first be boiled 
in a thin syrup, or it will shrink too much. Small fruit ia 
best to stew half the sugar over it, and let it stand a day or 
night. 

QUINCES. 

Pare, and cut in eight quarter pieces; boil until tender 
in a little water ; turn them in an earthen vessel, and let 
hem remain one day. Then boil and strain, the parings 
and pits or seeds, which will afford a rich jelly liquid ; to 
this, add your sugar, clarify, and when hot. lay in your 
fruit, and scald it an hour gently. Skim it out, and boil the 
liquid until sufficiently thick, and pour over. If you have 
But few quinces, prepare one third, or half the quantity of 



SKILFUL housewife's BOOJ. 151 

the same sized apples cut in the same manner, and cook in 
the sugar syrup first, and lay in the bottom of the jar, and 
they cannot be told from the quince in flavor. If you wish 
to make quince jelly do not boil the cores with your pre- 
serves, but reserve them for this purpose, and add a few 
pieces of the quince, to give it a higher flavor. It will make 
a rich, clear, delightful jelly, with the usual amount of sugar 
made in the usual way. S-ome prefer quinces cut in rings. 

PEACHES. 

If you preserve them whole, they shou d be gathered bo 
fore they are fully ripe, and before they part from the stone. 
Pare them, and boil in the syrup gently, until they are 
tender. If in quarters, crack the pits of half the peaches 
and* boil in the syrup ; strain and cook in the usual way. 
Put up in jars and glasses. Some prefer them cooked in a 
little water, and the syrup poured over them hot. Jelly 
may be made in the usual way ; mash them, and strain 
through a Jelly bag. Allow a pint of juice to a pound of 
loaf sugar, and if it does not readily congeal, dissolve an 
ounce or more of isinglass, and strain, and add. Put up in 
tumblers. The kernels should be cracked, and half of 
them boiled with the fruit. 

If you wish them preserved in brandy, they should be 
gathered before they are ripe ; rubbed with flannel, pricked 
with a large needle to the pit, in several places, and run the 
needle down the seam. Put them in cold water and boil 
them very gently until tender. Take them carefully out, 
fold them in a table cloth or soft flanneJ. Have ready a 
pint of brandy ; a pint of the juice, in which they w- re 
boiled ; a pound of loaf sugar. When the peaches are cool 
lay them in a jar and pour over them. They may be used 
as a dessert. 

PEARS. 

These look best if moderate size, preserved whole, pared, 
with the stems on. Make a thin syrup, and boil them ten- 
ler. If boiled too fast, they will break. They wifl be suf- 
ficiently cooked in half an hour. If you v/ish them nice, 
let them lie in the syrup in a jar, or tureen, two days. 
Drain the syrup fron the pears ; add more sugar ; boil 



152 SKILFUL HOUSE ;vife's book. 

ten minutes; skim, and put in the pears; simmer them till 
they are transparent. Take them out ; stick a clove in the 
end of each ; and lay in a jar when cool. Then pour ovei 
the warm syrup. For common use, they are best done in 
quarters, boiled tender in a little water ; then add half a 
pound of sugar to a pound of pears to the liquor, and sim 
mer them gently half an hour. They may be flavored 
with lemon if preferred. They are nice for common use, 
baked. They may be done with the stems on and pared, 
or with the skins. Put them in a tin with half a tea-cup 
of molasses, and the same of water, or the same of sugar 
and water. They will bake in an hour. 

PLUMS. 

May be preserved nice with the skins on or ofT. If on, 
they should be pricked at the top and bottom with a large 
needle. If you take them off, turn boiling water over them 
Plums require a pound and a half of sugar to a pound of 
fruit. Prepare your syrup thick, and lay in your plums to 
simmer, not to boil ; let them remain in a scalding state un- 
til cooked through, at least two hours. Then skim out and 
boil the liquor down about an hour. It must be thick to keep 
well. The flavor will be nmch improved by boiling in the 
syrup, half a pint of the kernels cracked. They must be 
strained out. Plums may be hardened, by scalding them 
in alum water ; and when drained, pouring the hot syrup 
over them every day for a week, but if done with care they 
will remain whole preserved as above. 

EGGPLUMS WHOLE. 

Take them before they are perfectly ripe, prick them all ovei 
with a fork, leave on the stems. To three pounds of plums, 
allow three pounds and a half of white broken sugar ; a half 
pint of clear hard water ; put in your plums and hang over 
a moderate fire ; boil gently and skim. As soon as they be- 
gin to crack or shrivel, take them out with a spoon one at a 
time, and lay them in dishes to cool. Smooth the skins 
down with your fingers if broken or ruffled. Lay them, 
when cold in the syrup, which should be slowly boiling, 
and let them simmer till they are clear, but not till they 
break. Put them up in jars. 



SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 1 53 

APPLES. 

These make as nice a sweetmeat as any other fruii. 
They may be done whole by paring them. Poil them is 
just enough water to cover them, half an hour slowly. 
Then pour the apple water on the sugar, and bo'l till clear 
and thick, skimming it carefully ; if you add lemons, have 
them ready, and lay in with the apples, and let; chem boil 
till the apples are tender and clear, but not till thty break. 
When cold, put them in jars. They look well cut in halves ; 
preserved with lemons or oranges, or alone, with a 'ittle of 
the essence or oil of lemon. If in halves or quarters, boil 
in the syrup till clear. 

» CRABAPPLES. 

These should be ripe ; simmer them till the skin? .-ome 
otf easily ; take them out ; peel, and core them with a s;nall 
knife, and not break them. Allow a pound and a hah of 
sugar, to a pound of fruit ; and ha^^a pint of water. When 
hot and skimmed, lay them in and boil until clear and ten- 
der. Spread them on dishes to cool, then place them in 
jars, and pour the liquor over. Some think their flavor 
improved by lemon peel bbiled with them. 

PINE APPLES. 

Take those that are ripe and fresh ; pare off the rind, and 
cut in slices half an inch thick. Sprinkle between them 
powdered loaf sugar ; and let them remain till the next day. 
Then with the usual syrup, boil until tender, putting them 
in when it is cold. Keep m a cool place. 

CITRONS AND WATER-MELON RINDS. 

To preserve their greenness, boil them with a layer of 
vine leaves between each layer of water-melon rinds, 
pound, and cut in pieces, with water enough to cover. Some 
add a few pieces of alum. Boil two hours with a thick 
cloth, or a plate to fit in, over them. Spread on a dish to 
cool. Then boil in a syrup two hours with the juioe and 
rind of one lemon. Lay the rind in jars and cover. 

PUMPKIN. 

Cut it in pieces of two inches m breadth, and four in 
length. Soak it in lemon juice and sugar, or vinegar, ovei 



l54 SKILFUL housewife's BOOK, 

night. Next day prepare a syrup and lay in the pieces, 
and juice ; and boil slowly until tender and transparent, but 
not long enough to break or lose its form. Boil lemon 
parings, cut in strips, with it. Spread the pieces to cool 
Strain the syrup, and put up in glass jars. 

APRICOTS. 

Take those that are ripe ; scald, peel, and cut in half, 
and extract the stones. Put them in layers wit'^ sugar be- 
tween, in a tureen or dish, and let them stana all night. 
Boil in a syrup a quarter of an hour, and spread to cool. 
Then boil again in the same syrup, and put away in jars. 

M AR M AL A D E S . 

They may be made of any fruit without seeds. The fruit 
should be boiled very soft with some of the kernels ; , and 
all of the pits of quinces, and parings, boiled and strained, 
added to the sugar. Mash to a fine pulp, and add sugar in 
the proportions of the sweetmeats, and simmer thick. It 
should be a smooth thick mass. Put up in tumblers. 

JELLIES. 

Almost all kinds of fruit will make a nice jelly. Plums, 
cherries, currants, grapes, quinces, peaches, apples, oranges, 
are all delicate and very nice. They should be boiled in 
considerable water very tender, with the seeds, and parts of 
the kernels. Then strained through a jelly bag, and allow 
a pound of sugar to a pint of juice. Boil a while, if 
boiled too long, it will not form. Isinglass may be added 
if there is a failure, which will be a remedy. 

RASPBERRY JAM. 

To each pound of fruit, allow three quarters of a pound 
of fine loaf suofar. Mash the berries and break the sug-ar. 
Mix together, boil, stir, and skim, the jam will be done in 
half an hour. Put it warm in glasses, and tie up with pa' 
pers over the top. Other jams are made in the same way. 

TO DRY CHERRIES AND PLUMS. 

Stone them, and half dry them. Pack them in jars, 
strewing sugar between each layer. They are very nice 
in pies, and otherwise. 



SKILFUL housewife's book. ' 15B 

APPLE BUTTER. 

Take .%ny kind of berries or other fruit. Allow half a 
pound of f.'ugar, to a pound of fruit ; boil till reduced one 
fourth. Nice for children instead of butter. 

F ^OSTED FRUIT. 

Beat tl>e whites c^ Bggs, and dip in the fruit ; then lay it 
m finely powdered sugar ; lay them on a pan with white 
paper under, and set them in an oven nearly cool to dry. 
When the icing is firm, pile them on a dish and set in a cool 
place. 

TO KEEP APPLES FRESH A YEAR. 

Dry sand ; and dry your barrel. Put in a layer of ap- 
ples, and a layer of sand, and so on until full ; cover it 
tight ; and keep where they will not freeze in winter. They 
will be fair, and fine flavored the next summer.. 

TO KEEP GRAPES, PLUMS, ETC., THROUGH THE WINTER. 

Put them in layers of cotton, until your jar is full ; cover 
close, and keep from frost. It is said they will keep im« 
.►nersed in molasses. 

ITALIAN MODE OF PRESERVING STRAWBERRIES. 

Place as many berries as will form a layer at the bottom 
of the dish, and sprinkle on powdered loaf sugar ; then an- 
other layer and sugar again. When your dish is suffi- 
ciently full, squeeze over them the juice of a fresh lemon ; 
stir them round before serving, that they may imbibe the 
lemon and sugar. They are said to be truly delicious. 

STRAWBERRIES FOR TEA. 

They should have nearly their weight in sugar, and a 
weet rich cream, to serve with them, and there is no greater 
uxury. 

P EAC HE S FOR TEA. 

They should be pared and cut in slices, and cover with 
BUgar and sweet cream. 

PEARS FOR TEA. 

Very ripe soft pears, may be prepared like peaches and 
are very nice. 



> i- *}x:-ivL housewife's boor. 

i^W t<.v^ci f its, vas;ib^iTieg, currants, and whortlebernei 
ft'a»uta be used Mie strawberries. 

T M A V G E FIGS. 

Take 3i:£ pounds of sugar io one peck or 16 lbs. of the 
fruit. Sci-U and remove the skin of the fruit in the usual 
way. Cook them over a fire, their own juice being suffi- 
cient, with the addition of water, until ihc yugar penetrate* 
and they are clarified. They are then taken out, spread on 
dishes, flattened and dried in the sun. A small quantity 
of the syrup should be occasionally sprinlxied over them 
while drying, after which, pack them down in uoxes, treat- 
ing each layer with powdered sugar. The sy'i^o io after- 
wards concentrated and bottled for use. They fefcep well 
from year to year, and retain surprisingly their flavor, i\hich 
IS nearly that of the best quality of fresh figs. Ihe pear 
shaped, or single tomatoes answer the purpose best. Ordi- 
nary brown sugar may be used, a large portion of which ia 
retained in the syrup. 

ORANGE SYRUP. 

This syrup is so easily made, and can be used so con- 
stantly with advantage, that no housekeeper should be with- 
out it. Select ripe and thin-skinned fruit, squeeze the juice 
through a sieve ; to every pint, add a pound and a half of 
powdered sugar ; boil it slowly, and skim as long as any 
scum rises ; you may then take it off', let it grow cold, and 
bottle it off" Be sure to secure the corks well. Two table 
spoons of this syrup, mixed in melted butter, make an ad- 
mirable sauce for a plum or batter pudding; it imparts a 
fine flavor to custards, and a tea-spoonful introduced into 
a glass of punch adds much tD its deliciousness. 

REGULATIONS FOR A DINNER TABLE. 

Let the cloth be laid on accurately, observing to have the 
middle fold exactly through the centre of the table. When 
even, lay the plates, one at each end, and around the sides 
at equal distances from each other. Lay the napkins neat- 
ly folded near each plate. Place the knives and forks that 
the ends of the handles come even with the edge of the ta 
ble, the blade towards the plate. The carving knives and 
forks at each end, and by those dishes that are to be carved. 



SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 15? 

Then place your tumblers about three inches from the edge 
of the table at the right side of the plate. Your table spoons 
as many as are needed, may be crossed and laid each side 
of the carver's plate. Let the castor be well filled and clean 
and placed in the centre. The salt stand well filled, 
the spoons perfectly bright and placed at convenient distan- 
ces for use. Let there be nothing wanting that may be 
needed on the table. 

FOR PLACING THE MEATS AND VEGETABLES. 

Soup or fish should always be set at the head of the table. 
Or if you have boiled and roasted meats, place the boiled 
meat at the head. The principal dishes go at the head, 
and if thereareone or two smaller ones, place them opposite 
to each other at the foot 

If there are four, place the two smallest at the sides. If 
there are five, put the smallest in the middle, and the other 
four opposite each other at the head, foot and sides, and so on. 

The vegetables should be placed in a strait line at the 
sides. A middling dinner well served up, the dishes pla- 
ced at proper distances, and well matched, has a more plea- 
sing aspect, and is more acceptable than double the quanti- 
ty crowded and in confusion. Great attention should be 
paid to these rules. 

FOR SERVING A DINNER. 

When every thing is in perfect readiness, and the chairs 
are placed round the table, open the door and announce 
dinner in a pleasant kind tone. When the company rise 
to go out, stand by the door holding it open until they have 
all passed through, then shut the door and follow to the 
dining room. If there are covers, remove them as soon as 
the company are seated. Take them ofT with the left hand 
turning them up quick that no water may drop from them. 
Put them on a side table, to be taken from the room when 
convenient. Always go to the left hand when you are 
serving those at table, except to pour water, that should be 
done at the right. Be attentive to the wants of those at ta- 
ble. Notice if each one is well helped, and be ready to 
hand any thing that is wanted. Do not wait to be asked 
for every thing by the company. If you keep a sharp eye 
( n the table you will see many things wanted that is nol 



158 SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 

asked for, such as bread, vegetables, sauce, &c As soot 
as you perceive the signal to remove the first c-ourse, tak« 
a knife tray and remove all the knives, forks, spoons, ana 
ladles from the sauce boats first ; then the plates. Begic 
at the bottom dish on the left side, and take all before you 
as vou proceed until you come to the bottom again- Whe» 
allis cleared away, take a fork and plate and take up ah 
the pieces of bread from the cloth. Then take another plate 
and table-brush or a clean towel rolled up, and begin at the 
bottom on the left side,brushing off clean all the crumb* 
round the table. If there are finger glasses to be used 
place them half filled with water at the right side of each 
person. Put on the piles of plates at the head and foot ac- 
cording to the dishes requiring them. Place the pies a* 
each end, custard and puddings at the sides, with a knife 
and fork on each pie, and spoons for the side dishes. Place 
the cheese in the centre, if in a tray ; if there are two, one 
at each end. 

Putting on the dessert. If the cloth is to be removed 
before serving the dessert, first take off the finger glasses, 
begining at the bottom, then the plates, dishes, &c., in the 
same order as before ; then the napkins and cloth. Then 
take a towel and wipe off the table, and proceed to put 
round the plates. If you have cake, place that in the centre, 
the others in a straight line, the sugar basin and water 
pitcher between. If you have side dishes, place them at 
equal distances to match in size and color as near as possi- 
ble. When you have all your dishes on the table, put a 
knife to your cake, and half a dozen large spoons to serve 
the dessert with. When there is blanc mange or ice cream, 
lay a small pile of plates at the top and bottom, and when 
all are served, then proceed to take all the dirty things 
from the room with as little noise as possible. In serving 
a table it should be done with a light quick step, but never 
with bustle or hurry. Never seem impatient to leave the 
room, but quietly wait, and be kindly attentive. 



SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 159 

A FEW GENERAL DIRECTIOIVS FOR CARVING, ETC. 

The heads of fish and fowl, pigs, hares, &c., should bfc 
placed at the left hand of the carver. The thick end oi 
|oints also. If the platter has a place for gravy in one end 
place it that it may come to the right hand. This should 
be done when the meats are brought to the table, that they 
need not be turned. The carving knife should be in gooJ 
order, with a keen edge. In using it no great streno-th is 
required. Practice will render it easy to carve the most 
difficult articles. It is well to notice how a good carver 
proceeds when a joint or fowl is before him. The fleshy 
joints are to be cut in smooth slices, and common carving, 
where the fat and lean are combined. The knife should be 
passed round the bone in cutting a joint, and great attention 
should be paid in helping every person to a portion of the 
Dest part. The outside piece should be first taken of!^ in 
such pieces as have an outside. The question should then 
be asked which is preferred. Always cut the slices rather 
thin with a portion of fat with each slice. If there is dress- 
ing or stuffing, obserre to lay a portion with the meat on 
each plate. A sirloin may be cut at the end or into the 
middle. The joints in a loin of mutton or veal, should be 
divided by the butcher, and then they will be easily carved, 
and fine slices taken off' between the bones. If there are 
different kinds of meat in piece, ask which will be prefeTed. 
In carving large fowls, place the fork in the breast firmly, 
and carve first from one side of the breast, taking off' the 
wing and leg, then on the other side, in the same manner, 
leaving the carcase containing the dressing ; ask which 
part is preferred. Pigeons should be cut in halves either 
lengthwise or across,and half helped to each person. The 
skewers should be taken out before the dishes are placed 
on the table. 

To CARVE A PIG. This 13 generally divided by the cook 
before it is sent up. First divide the shoulder from the 
body on one side, and then the leg. The ribs are next to 
be separated in two or three parts. In serving, some like 
the ear and jaw, a bit of either with the stuffing should be 
served with some of the best parts of the pig on each plate 



160 SKILFUL HOUSEWlFE^S BOOK. 

Rabbits. These are carved by separating the legs aifa 
shoulders from the body ; the back is divided in two or three 
parts, cutting through the body ; the head may be given to 
any one who prefers it : the ears being removed before it ii 
served up. 

A Saddle of Mutton or Venison. Commence neai 
the end and carve out lengthwise, pieces from the sides of 
the back bone, a portion of fat to each slice ; they should b« 
cut thin and smooth. 

Ham should be carved about one-third from the thinnes 
end, cutting lo.ng thin slices. 

Spare Rib should be cut first from the thick meat, neai 
the back bone, slicing it from the outside. U any prefei 
the rib bone, they are easily cut through and jointed after 
the meat is first cut off' at the back. 

A BOILED Tongue should be carved through the thickest 
part, or nearly through the middle ; slices from this part are 
more juicy and tender than from the end. This to accompa- 
ny any of the white meats, is very nice and should be ser- 
ved to any who take chicken, veal or turkey. 

Half a calf's head boiled is a genteel dish, if a smah 
one, and well dressed. When first cut, it should be along 
the cheek bone in the fleshy part, where many handsome 
slices may be cut. The throat sweetbread lies at the end 
of the jaw bone ; this may be cut in slices, and the eye cut 
from the socket, and if two are to be obliged, divide it, as 
some are very fond of the eye, also the palate, There is 
some gristly fat to be pared off" about the ear, and also some 
good meat to be met with on the under side covering the 
under jaw. 

A Cod's head and shoulders, if large and in season, is a 
very genteel and handsome dish if well boiled. When cm 
it should be done with a spoon or fish trowel. All the parts 
are served except the green jel.y of the eye, this is never 
given to any one. The palate, the tongue, the sound, and 
jelly about the head, are considered very delicate and nice, 
and should be served with a piece of the fish on each plate, 

serving tea. 
When the tea is to be sent around, let avery thing be well 
arranged and in perfect readiness. There should be two 



SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 16 

et least, whose services will be actively required in carry- 
ing the waiters. While the tea is pouring, the youngesi 
Bhould take the tea-plates on a small salver, and pass them, 
beginning at the ladies, ana nelping them first ; then the 
gentlemen. As soon as tn.a done, the tea should be brought 
The tea-tray should be larcre, and if coffee is served, place 
a cup of tea between every two of coffee the first time round 
as there is generally more coffee taken than tea. One 
should follow with the cream and sugar, the handles of the 
sugar-tongs and cream-spoon towards the company. When 
you first enter the room, cast an eye around the room 
and observe where the most of the elderly ladies are 
seated, and proceed forward, and help one of them first ; 
lower the waiter that it may be easy to take the tea. Have 
in another tray, your biscuit spread, wafers, toast, cake, 
tongue, beef, or whatever is preparea to send, all neatly ar- 
ranged, to take round as soon as you have served the tea ; 
and if the party is largs, tnis tray should be carried by an- 
other, while you are serving the tea. When the ladies 
are all served, then proceea to nelp the gentlemen, begin- 
ning as with the ladies. When all the company are served 
with the first round, carry out your tray, and wipe it clean 
if wet; then take another waiter to receive the cups as soon 
as needed, During this interval, hand round your cake, 
&c. When you have received all your empty cups, rinse 
them, and proceed to serve round another course, beginning 
at the same lady, and going all round, leaving the lady of 
the family until the last, as strangers must be served first. 
This second round is generally enough ; but hand round 
the cake, &c. once or tw^ce after, then carry all out of the 
room ; and if cold weather, see that all the fires burn well 

A FEW OBSERVATIONS TO COOKS. 

Let your character be remarkable for industry and mod- 
eration ; your manners and deportment for modesty and 
humility. Let your dress be distinguished for neatness, 
avoiding every thing that looks like finery. 

Never think any part of your business too trifling to be 
well done. Eagerly embrace every opportunity of learn- 
ing any thing which may be beneficial to yourself, or that 
may benefit others 



S62 SKILFUL housewife's book. 

Do not throw yourself out of employment for a slight of- 
fence, you may repent of it when it is too late. Come when 
you are called, and do whatever is required cheerfully. Do 
every thing at its proper time. Keep every thing in its 
proper place. Use every thing for its proper purpose. 

Saucy answers are highly aggravating, and serve no good 
purpose. Muttering on leaving the room, or slamming the 
door after you, is as bad as an impertinent reply. It often 
leads to unhappy consequences; at any rate, you lose the es- 
teem of those who would be your best iriends. The in 
dulgence of a bad temper will seriously injure the reputa- 
tion of those even who are most skilled in your art. " Tem- 
per is every thing;" this must be carefully cultivated bi- 
those who would be useful, or desire to please. 

Apply to your employers and ascertain how they like 
their victuals dressed, whether much or little done. What 
complexions they wish their roasts, whether light or well 
Drowned, or if they like them frothed. How they like their 
soups, and sauces, and what accompaniments they prefer. 
What flavors they fancy, especially of spices and herbs. 

Enter into all their plans of economy, and endeavor 
to make the most of every thing, as well for your 
OA'n honor, as well as the profit of your employer. 
Take care that the meat which is to appear again on the 
table is handsomely cut with a sharp knife, and put on a 
clean dish. Take care of the gravy left, it will make sauce 
for other dishes. Many things may be re dressed to advan- 
tage. The best way to warm cold meat, is to sprinkle a 
little salt over it, and let it warm gradually in an oven. 
Watch it carefully, and turn it often, for about an hour. 
Serve it up with gravy, as if freshly cooked. It is better 
than hashing it, and if done nicely, the cook will get great 
credit. Take care of the gravy you have boiled poultry 
and meat in. You may convert it into the best of soups 
with the usual seasonings, and make an excellent dish with 
little expense or trouble. Your soups should be otherwise 
made of the trimmings of meat, and the bones where the 
meat has been cut off for other purposes, seasoned with car* 
rots, onions, and herbs, will invariably furnish a rich and 
palatable dish. To excite the good opinion of the eye if 
the first step towards awaking a good appetite, Each disft 



SKILFUL HOUSEWIFE S BOOK. 163 

r 

must be well cooked, and sent to the table with its propel 
accompaniment in the neatest and most elegant manner. 
Decoration is most rationally employed in making a plain 
nutritious dish inviting. Be careful that nothing is over 
nor under done. Have evej'y thing convenient for use. 
ihat no time be wasted in looking for things. It is a good 
plan to keep your peppers, spice, cinnamon, &c., cloves 
ground, put up in bottles, labelled and corked, that you may 
have them always ready for immediate use. Have your 
salt, saleratus, browned coffee, starch, &c., in boxes with 
covers labelled, and placed where they can be used con- 
veniently. Have your rice, coffee, pepper, &c., in bags, 
hanging in their places. Have a good supply of holders 
/eady made on hand, but two is sufficient to have in use at 
once. Keep them m their place, that the}' may not be mis- 
sing when wanted. Keep all your sauce-pans, kettles, pots, 
&c., clean, and ready for use. Be careful not to accumu- 
late cold dishes, but have every thing used in its time. A 
hanging safe, in a cool, dry, airy situation, is a suitable 
place to keep meat and poultry. They ure better to be 
kept awhile, though not to injure. A careful cook will not 
suffer any thing to be lost for the want of attention. The 
hams and beef will be packed away early, before they can 
be injured by insects ; the pork will be kept under the 
brine ; the cheese protected from whatever may injure it ; 
and every thing will have its appropriate care, and done in 
its proper time, thus securing a good reputation and making 
your services valuable. If you expect favor, you must 
make an effort to desee,ve it. Be fond of obliging, and 
grateful when obliged. Rather do more than is required 
of you, than less than your duty. Endeavor to promots 
the comfort and happiness of each member of the family, 
and at all times be cheerful, patient, and conscientious. 

treatment of domestics. 
She that looks well to the " ways of her household" 
will consider with kindness each member that constitutes 
her family. If she has a woman's heart, she will often feel 
that those whose services she needs, and whose duties are 
of a toilsome nature, have a claim upon her care and sym- 
pathy, and wilj endeavor to lighten the burden and enconr 



'164 SRILFITL housewife's BOOK. 

age the hearts of those whose little stock of happiness is s<^ 
much at her disposal. The kind manner, the approving 
word, the grateful smile, care for the health and habits thai 
she munift^sts, soothes the perturbed spirit, and has a cheer- 
ing influence leaving a brighter spot glowing in the bo- 
som. Instruction in what belongs to the duties of their sex, 
as moral beings, as candidates for immortality, will secure 
the respect and affection, and promote the happiness ana 
well-being of those whose highest aim, and perhaps plea- 
sure, is to make you happy, and gain your approbation. 

Justice in discharging the smallest obligation is highly 
important. The wages should be promptly paid, and if 
you discover an effort to please, and regard to your interest, 
let it not be forgotten, but show your approbation, and en- 
courage to a continuation of such a desirable course, by oc- 
casionally rewarding it with some trifle, which is a kind op 
TESTIMONY that wiU be valued and appreciated. An Amer- 
ican female writer has observed that "scolding has long 
been considered as ungenteel, and that finding fault in a 
severe and pettish tone never does any good, that it is the 
last way to make one .sorry for omission or faults." Give 
reproof in a calm undisturbed manner by first making in- 
quiry, that there may be room for explanation. This is the 
best discipline to your own feelings, and may save you in- 
flicting wounds that cannot be healed. Better dismiss from 
your family one that will not conform to its rules, than to 
have its peace destroyed by unpleasant occurrences. 

GARDEN SHRUBS, ETC., FLOWERS. 

Let every home if possible be accompanied with the 
pleasures, the business of a well " kept" garden, it greatly 
enhances the delights that cluster there, by furnishing its 
rich and varied sources for enjoyment. The climbing vine, 
the swelling bud, the opening blossom, the glowing beau- 
ties of Nature's coloring, cannot fail to remind us of the good- 
ness of their Author, and to stir the heart with the most pleas- 
ing sensations. How the purple plum, the delicious grape, the 
fragrant strawberry, and all the tempting fruits and delica- 
cies, that hang on every stem, mirror to our hearts a picture 
of Paradise, and make us feel how sad a curse to be driven 



SKILFUL housewife's BOOR. 165 

St once both from the smiles of the Creator, and from tnt 
delights of the earthly Paradise, the garden of Eden. Cui 
tivate flowers ; it is a healthy employment, and exhibits 
evidence of refinement and taste. If you inhabit a cottage, 
the vines twined at the windows, and the sweet-brier by the 
door, the lilacs down the walk, and the snow-ball here and 
there, will make that cottage-home a place of enchantment. 
[t is flowers that give, even to the log cabin, the appearance 
of happiness and peace. They draw out our hearts in ad- 
miration like the virtues, when connected with deformity, 
and we cannot avoid yielding the homage of our love. 

PRACTICAL HINTS. 

Shrubs require an annual pruning, to remove the super- 
fluous branches, and to form a handsome bush. Apply 
props to such as need support. Some shrubs may be raised 
from seed sowm in early spring, but are most commonly ob- 
tained, from layers, suckers, and cuttings, buds or scions. 
They require a good soil, and those most tender, need pro* 
tection in winter by a covering of straw, leaves, or litter. 
To obtain shrubs from slips, it must be done before the buds 
begin to swell, or before they leaf. They should be taken 
from the parent stem so as to leave an eye or bud at the 
lower end, and that part should be well covered with earth, 
and the ground kept moist. 

CUTTINGS OR SLIPS. 

They should be of the last year's growth, the joints near 
together, and should be three or four in a cutting. They 
should be planted from four to six inches from the end of 
the stem. They should be sheltered, and the ground en- 
riched and loosened. Press the earth around the stem, ana 
insert them about one-third their lengih. Water them in 
dry weather, and by autumn they will be rooted. 

SUCKERS. 

These are young plants that shoot up around a shrub or 
tree from the root ; they may be carefully separated in spring 
ar autumn, and transplanted. 

LOCUSTS. 

So-w the seed in March, April, or May, in good sandy 
loam, half an inch deep. Pour scalding hot water on 



166 

the seed, and let it stand all night. Pick out such seeds as 
have swelled, and plant them. Repeat the process wit.i 
those that did not swell, and sow them, and they will come 
up the next month abundantly. The next year transplant 
them into rich' sandy ground. They sucker freely, and 
may be propagated rapidly by transplanting them. Let 
none be lost. 

SHRUBS. 

There are several varieties of lilacs. And they might 
be found more abundant than they are. It is not under- 
stood how easily with proper knowledge and suitable care 
every dwelling might be furnished with all the common va- 
rieties of flowering shrubs. By slips or suckers, the lilac, 
snowberry, syringa, guilder rose or snowball, laburnum, 
and others, with their beauty and fragrance, might be made 
to contribute to our enjoyment, and adorn every '' home" in 
our land. 

D A HL IAS. 

This splendid plant is raised better from the root than 
from seed. As soon as they have done flowering, the topa 
should be cut down and the root well covered with litter 
and earth, to ripen without being injured by frost. In aboul 
a week or on appearance of severe weather, they should be 
dug up and put in dry sand out of the reach of frost. They 
should neither be kept too damp or dried to a husk. If 
kept well, they will begin to sprout around the old stem and 
tubers, in March or April. They should then be put in 
light earth, or in pots, and kept in a warm room and wa- 
tered. As soon as they have grown two or three inches, 
they may be divided in such a manner as that each sprout 
should have a piece of the tuber strongly attached. Each 
of these will make a plant, and must be kept growing in 
separate pots until about the middle of May. Then they 
may be set out in beds well prepared with compost, and 
made mellow with the earth they are in around them 
When set out, place a neat stake near, that the brittle stem 
IS it grows may be fastened at every joint with twine, as the 
wind and rain will destroy them. If raised from seed, sow 
It the last of February or first of March in pots. The earth 
should be a mixture of sand, leaf mould, and compost, or 
that which is equivalent. 



SKTLFUL housewife's BOOK. 161 

OALLAS OR ETHIOPIAN LILLl'. 

This elegant plant needs moist ground, but shou.d not be 
«ratered much while in bud or blossom. It should l>ave 
plenty of air and light, but too much hea-t causes it to turn 
yellow, and its rich leaves to die and fall. This plant i 
best propagated by suckers, which spring up around th 
parent stalk. 

GERAN lUMS. 

These are propagated easily by slips, placed in pots, and 
kept from the sun with the ground kept moist. They 
should not be wet when in full bloom, but it may be done 
before the buds are expanded. 

MONTH L Y ROSES. 

These need sun and air, when they are rooted and should 
be watered in proportion as they receive it. The young 
wood furnishes buds and blossoms. 

THE PASSION FLOWER. 

This is a beautiful vine and requires to be well trained 
and supported. They will grow to cover a large surface 
if properly attended. They must have the climate of a warm 
room or Green House. 

THE HONEY SUCKLE. 

This in its varieties is a desirable vine for the frame work 
at the door, the piazza, &c. It may be increased by turn' 
ing the ends downward into the ground. It should be care- 
fully trained. 

GARDEN ROSES. 

These should be pruned after they have done flowering 
Cut out the old wood where it is too thick, shorten such 
rhoGts as have a good eye or bud, and a healthy leaf,and all 
that grows after this pruning will produce large flowers the 
next year. 

In November cover flowerbeds with leaves, straw and 
litter, also the roots of grape vines, and other tender planta 
and shrubs. 

If plants are watered too much,^ 'hey will perish of mil- 
i3ew Slips should ^»e «x:rinsed gradually to the sim. A 



|68f SKfLFUL housewife's BOOK. 

piece of the older wood on a cutting, causes it to strike rool 
more readily. To avoid the bad effects of evaporation, the 
leaves are often removed from the lower part of the ciittiiig 
of shrubs and trees, they are more likely to live and thrive, 
Take them from branches that grow near the ground. 

Transplantation is best done in the spring or fail, biU 
may take place at all seasons, if the newly formed extremi- 
ties of the root are uninjured. 

All garden soil should be dug and made mellow. If in- 
sects prevail on plants, they should be fumigated with to- 
bacco, or watered where tobacco leaves have been soaked. 
April is the time to clip the edgings of box, and remove the 
roots that are superfluous, in a border or on beds. 'Inhere 
may be from your yard enough spared, to adorn that of a 
friend. See to it that nothing of the kind is lost. Trim the 
cuttings of trees or shrubs a little, that the leaves or branches 
do not touch the ground, it will cause decay. Both ends of 
a tubular stalk may be inserted in the earth, and it will 
produce two plants and be most likely to live. Never wa- 
ter the top or leaves of a plant when the sun shines, it should 
be confined to the root. The watering of plants is best 
done morning and evening, except when newly transplanted 
or when shaded*from the sun. in September, prepare beds 
for planting tulips, hyacinths, anemones, ranunculusses and 
other flower roots aud shrubs that are to be planted the 
next month. When necessary trim pines, firs, walnut trees 
and maples, as the sap will not so much exude as in springy 
also, plant beds of strawberries. 

TO OBTAIN DIFFERENT FLOWERS FROM THE SAME STEM. 

Split a small twig of elderbush lengthwise, and having 
scooped out the pith, fill each compartment with flower seeds 
of different sorts but which blossom about the same time 
surround them with mould, and then tying togetner the two 
halves, plant the whole in earth. The stems will exhibit 
to the eye flowers of the different varieties of seed, as from 
one stem. 

FRUIT TREES. 

We hear complaints oi the. dBoav and death of fruit trees, 
owt it IS through neglect, vr a want oi Knowiege of their 

di.seases. 



SKILFUL HOUSEWIFE^S BOOK. 
SOAP FOR KILLING BORERS IN TREES. 

Hard soap rubbed carefully into every place in the tree, 
which seems to be wounded by them, will destroy efleciu* 
ally these nuisances to gardens and orchards. The raia 
will dissolve it, and force them out of their holes and cause 
their death. Strong ley put on with a swab or brush, is 
equally good ; made of potash, one pound to a gallon of 
water. 

APPLE. 

Pruning the decayed limbs, and rubbing the trunks with 
a hard brush, and painting with a mixture of soft soap 
and flour of sulphur, in proportion of five gallons of the 
former to one of the latter'; and also strewino- lime under 
the trees and around the trunks, will prevent decay — revive 
and almost resusciate the dying. It improves the quality 
of the fruit, and the grass, and helps to destroy the worms. 

PEACH. 

These trees do best in elevated situations ; when the sci 
IS unfavorable on hills, it should be improved ; cold, wet, or 
spongy soil is unfavorable. When peach trees begin to 
languish, remove the soil around them, and supply its place 
with charcoal, it will produce a sudden renovation and im- 
prove the richness of the fruit. Prune in the extremities 
of the branches of bearing trees, two feet in July every 
year. This will keep the tree full of bearing buds and 
healthy wood. All trees that haw the yellows must be 
removed, as the disease is contagious. Graft them in Sep- 
tember. Peach trees may be preserved from the ravages of 
the worms, by freeing the diseased part from earth, and 
gum, and spreading over it a thin coat of common hard 
soap, and filling up with fresh soil. It not only destroys 
the insect, but preserves the tree in a healthy state; even if 
used freel}'', it will, not injure it. Soft soap is equally good 
applied in the early part of April, and then again in the early 
part of June. It must be repeated every season, and as it is 
dissolved by the rain, it descends to the roots, and causes it 
to grow vigorously, besides destroying insects and eggs, ai.d 
cleansing the bark. Several hundred trees may be done io 
s. few hours, it is eqaiiy good for other fruit. 



170 SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 

QUINCE. 

This is a beautiful tree when in blossom, and when the 
fruit is ripe, it is highly ornamental. It is easily raised 
from cuttings or layers taken from the tree in April, and 
planted in a shady place, and the soil enriched, which will 
keep it from sudden drought. Also water occasionally 
They might grow in any part of the country with suitable 
care 

PEAR. 

This tree dies of a disease called the fire blight. It occurs in 
summer ; the leaves from the extremities of the branches, 
for two or more feet, appear as if scorched. This should be 
cut off' a foot or more from the diseased part, and immedi- 
ately buried. When. this is practised, the evil is arrested. 

PLUM. 

This tree is becoming deplorably affected with the '* black 
gum" caused by an insect. That part, where this disease 
is found, should be cut off and burned, without delay. This 
will preserve it. 

GOOSEBERRY. 

The bush should not stand against a fence ; it should be 
well trimmed every spring, especially in the middle of the 
bush ; never allow two branches to rub against each other. 
Dig well around it, and enrich the soil at the time of prun- 
ing. Sprinkle Uiem with soap suds from the washtub three 
or four weeks before blossomir.g out; it will prevent mildew, 
and produce fine large berries. 

raspbe rry. 

Set them in cool deep moist soil, in a sheltered and partly 
shaded place, and they will throw up suckers to the height 
of six or eiefht feet, and produce large and well flavored 
berries. They are easily cultivated, and rapidly propa- 
gated by cuttings, suckers, and layers • No one who has 
enjoyed the luxury of tlie white raspberry in its season, will 
De willing to do without them. 

CURRANT. 

Keep the bushes well trimmed, and the fruit will be muci 
arger and better flavored. 



SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 171 

S T R A W B E R Fk, Y . 

Plant them about two feet apart each way, and cut offtha 
runners, that you may have larg-er and better fruit, as the 
sun and air will then more easily circulate through them. 
Water them around the root, as it spoils the flavor of the 
fruit to be over-watered. Charcoal dust, and soot, greatly 
improves the soil of strawberry beds ; the soot should be 
sprinkled, and hoed in during the month of April ; and the 
charcoal after rains, when the ground has become hard. 

CELERY. 

Set out the plants in rich comjyost and earth six inches 
apart, as they progress in growth, draw the earth around 
them, but not to touch the central part ; water with salt and 
water, or scatter salt around the plant, and it will be greatly 
improved. It is a saline plant, and is found in some coun- 
tries in ditches near the sea. It may be kept in the cellar 
or green-house through the winter, for use. 

ASPARAGUS. 

In spring, the soil should be always enriched if not done 
1 the fall, which is preferable. As soon as the frost is out 
of the ground, the earth should be chopped two or three 
inches over the beds, and the compost hoed in. Then the 
ioil should be stirred every day or two, to keep out weeds, 
until the plant comes up. When you cut the tops, take 
them off even with the surface. This plant also is saline, 
and is benefitted with waterings of salt and water. 

EGG PLANT. 

The fruit of this plant is highly esteemed by many. The 
seed should be sown early, and transplanted into the open 
ground in early June, two feet apart ; care should be taken 
to protect the young plants from the black flea. 

CEESS OR PEPPEE GRASS. 

Is a beautiful salad, alone or with lettuce. Sow in drills^ 
nd cut before it comes into rough leaf. 

P^ H U B A R B . 

A few stems cut from the roots, and planted in rich ground 
our feet apart, will furnish stems enough for a family. Nff 



172 SKILFUL housewife's BOOK 

garden should be without it, as the stalk is a luxury, made 
into a pie. The leaves are poison. 

CUCUMBER. 

An improved mode of cultivating" this favorite plant, i«! in 
dinging a hole in the earth, and filling it with about a peck 
of leeched ashes, and covering the ashes with a small quan- 
^ty of earth ; then planting the seed on a level with the sur- 
face of the ground. This has been tried with great suc- 
cess. 

TOMATO, 

It is a good plan to sow the seed in a hot-bed, or in boxes, 
in April, and transplant them when danger from frost is 
passed. They should be four feet apart in good rich ground, 
and the vines supported by a frame-work of some kind, or 
brush, as the fruit will be better than if left on the ground. 
The cherry or plum tomato for pickling, and the large 
red, are best for preserving. Though both are used for a 
vegetable. 

BROCCALI AND CAULIFLOWER. 

This plant should be cultivated like the common specie* 
of cabbage. It is much nicer grown in rich soil, and the 
ground kept loose about the root. 

VEGETABLE OYSTER. 

There is no vegetable that the lover of the real oyster 
would value more than this easily cultivated plant. When 
once in a garden, they are not soon destroyed. They 
should have good soil, and be cultivated like other spindle 
shaped roots. 

NA STU R C 10 N. 

This beautiful plant is valued for its cress-like pod, used 
ts a pickle. They need the support of a frame-work oi 
bush to keep them from the ground. 

LETTUCE. 

If you wish to hc'ive early salad of this plant, start it in a 
hot-bed or boxes, and transplant into your garden, setting 
ihem far enough apart to keep the earth loose about the 
root, and they will head tender and larger. 



SKILFUL HOUSEWHe's BOOK l75 

CANARY BIRDS. 

THEIR CHARACTERIS'IICS, DIRECTIONS FOI 
REARING, FEEDING, AND NURSING THEM. 

Canaries are not naturally so delicate as they are 
thought to be, but become so for want of proper care 
They excel most other birds in their g'ood qualities, the 
Tweetness of their song, which continues most of the 
year, except the time of moulting, when they are o-ene- 
rally silent, though some in spite of this annual illness do 
not even then lose their song. Their plumage is deli 
cate and sometimes beautiful, which is displayed in differ- 
ent colors, most commonly in a brijijht yellow or straw 
color. They are very docile and will learn a variety ot 
^I'easing little tricks, such as comJng at the call and pro- 
nouncing words distinctly. They will also learn airs and 
keep time like a musician. As to the time of pairing, it 
p-enerally commences about the middle or laiter end of 
March, or perliaps a better criterion would be when the 
frosts disapoear, and the sun sheds an enlivening warmth. 
Put the pair you intend to match into a small cage, and 
although they may at first be quarrelsome, they will soon 
become reconciled. which will be known by their feeding 
each other, billing. &c. Feed them at the time with the 
following. Boil an egg very hard, chop and grate it fine 
add bread crumbled equally fine, a little maw seed, mix 
this well, and jgive them a tablespoontul twice a day. In 
ten days they will be paired. Place the cage in a room 
that erjovs the morning suHj and not where it shines hot 
in the afternoon, as the excessive heat will produce sick- 
ness, breed rnites, &c Place in the cage a little hay and 
cows hair, the latter after serving once, may be washed 
and dried for future use in building nests. The nest 
boxes are composed of wicker, or wire i^ottoms, so that 
the dust falls through, and there should be but one in a 
cage at a time or until the hen ha^ hatohedj then put in 
another and make the nest for them- a? it s^vp^i th*^m 
much fatigue; if it does not please them they »vx)» y .^r. 
»dapt it to their fancy. The following J^ood Pi»^?t l»* V r 



174 SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 

when they have young : Boil an egg and grate it — take ai 
much bread as the size of an egg and graie and mix well 
logfcther, and feed them d spoonful three times a day. 
For a change soak a piece of stale sweet-bread in water — 
squeeze it out and add a little sweet milk and feed them 
— also give them a little cabbage in its season. This and 
chickweed, and salad, may be given in their season three 
times a day. But if they are given early in the year be- 
fore the bitterness has passed away they are hurtful. The 
hen sits thirteen but more generally fourteen days. Clean 
the perches, fill one fountain with water and the other 
with seed, so that they shall not be disturbed for two or 
three days after they hatch. When your young ones can 
feed themselves, you may cage them off, and give them 
egg and bread as before stated, with a little maw seed, 
with some ground or bruised rape, till they are seven 
weeks old ; when they will be able to crack hard seed, 
which should be given them before that time. If you 
wish to make one very tame you can bring it up by hand, 
taking it from the old ones as soon as they are fiedged, or 
feathered, which will be in eleven or twelve days. When 
taken from the hen, it should be placed in a warm box, 
and placed in rather a dark situation, to make it forget 
the old ones. 

Sometimes you will be obliged to reir.ove them. If 
the hen should be ill, they should be taken from her, for 
she cannot feed them ; and when she leaves them to the 
care of the male bird or if she plucks the feathers from 
her young, they should be removed, as in that case she 
will kill them in two or three days. 

The following paste may be given, which will keep 
good fifteen days. Bruise in a mortar or on a table with 
A rolling pin a quart of rape seed in such a manner that 
jTou can blow the chaff away, and a piece of bread, re- 
ducing them to powder. Put it in a dry box and keep it 
from the sun. Give ateaspoonful of this, and a little hard 
egg grated with a few dijpps of water. This will become 
unfit for them after twenty days, as then it will be sour. 
It may be given without harm to the old birds if neces- 
sary, but *t must be given dry. Or if preferred, you may 



SKILFUL HOUSEWIFE'S BOOK I7t 

give for the first three days, grated egg ano' sponge bis- 
cuit made fine and mixed with a little water to make it 
like paste. Then add a small quantity of scalded rape 
seed, as then they are strong enough to digest it. They 
may also have a small quantity of chickweed seed, and a 
iweet almond peeled and chopped fine. The chickweed 
may be given twice a day in very hot weather. 

Birds brought up by hand require to be fed once in two 
hours. To feed them, sharpen a little stick of wood and 
give them at each feeding four or five mouthfuls, or until 
they refuse to open their mouths voluntarily. At a month 
old you may cease feeding them with a stick, as they will 
then begin to f^ed alone. You must put them in a cage 
without perches first, and have a little bird seed in a box 
or glass, and in about seven weeks take the soft food by 
degrees away, and leave only the hard seed. It will be 
well occasionally to give a little bruised hempseed, espe- 
cially in winter. If they are ill when young, treat them 
as follows. Bruise some hempseed and soak it a little m 
water, then squeeze it through a cloth which forms what 
Is called the milk of hempseed. This will strengthen and 
nourish young birds very much, but you must take the 
water glass away when you give this medicine. 

DISEASES TO WHICH THEY ARE SUBJECT. 

Outward signs are absolutely necessary to judge of their 
diseases, and when ill they exhibit strong symptoms. — 
The first spoken of, is the swelling of the stomach, which 
attacks them at a month or six weeks old, in consequence 
of over feed in o; on soft food such as salad and chickweed. 
The extremity of the body becomes swollen, of a dark 
red colour, and very hard, full of small red veins and the 
bowels seem to protrude. For this, put in a small piece of 
alum in the water and renew it every day, for three or 
four days at least. This will frequently be found to 
answer. Another remedy is to put a rusty nail into the 
water, whi;h should be changed twice a week leaving 
the nail in it. Boiled bread and milk with canary seed 
boUed in it, is sometimes effectual. Put it inside the 
cage for five or six mornings and at twelve o'clock you 



176 SKILFUL housewife's BOOK 

may give the usual food. Another remedy ;s, to put thft 
bird in lukewarm milk for six or eight minutes, that a por- 
aon of it may be absorbed by the pores, then put him in 
warm spring water, after which wipe him with a soft 
muslin before the fire until dry. Then put him in his 
cage and place it before the fire a short distance or in the 
hot sun in the room. After putting him in his place give 
him lettuce seed and let him rest the next day; 

repeat this on the third day, and if necessary three or 
four times with the interval of a day each time — as much 
for the repose of the bird as for the remedy to operate. 
This gives relief if faithfully applied. 

The moult or renewal of the feathers, is also a danger- 
ous time, it occasions sometimes death. Very few die if 
the autumn is fine, and temperate. It generally attacks 
young birds when about six weeks old, and lasts two 
months. They appear melancholy and often sleep in the 
day with their head under their wing. The cage will be 
full of small feathers, as young birds do not cast the wmg 
or tail feathers the first year, but the second they moult 
throughout. At this time they eat but little and only such 
as they like best, they require a variety of nourishing rood 
and require to be kept warm. The least cold at this time 
will prove fatal. If they are bad you may give tnem a 
piece of sponge cake or biscuit soaked in whiie wine ; 
sherry is best, if they eat this it will do them mucti good, 
and it is good to sprinkle a little over them and piace 
them before the fire. A little refined liquorice in the 
water is good. A few grits make them cast their feath- 
ers while moulting. If they should have a sraaii pimple 
on the extremity of the body and appear rather dull, cut 
off the Lop of it with a pair of scissors and put on a littlo 
salt and sugar, and if the pimple is not well formed put 
on sweet oil. 

They sometimes have red mites if the cage is not kept 
clean. It may be discovered by their frequent plucking 
and feathering themselves. But it may be avoided by 
cleanino- the cas^e twice a week. 

Canaries are subject to other diseases, which may be 
cured without much trouble. If they are attacked with 



SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. IT 

iljarrhea, pull a few feathers out of the tail, and rub on 
the oil of sweet almonds on the lower part of the body. 
Give them hard yolk of egg, grated sponge cake, scalded 
/ettuce, and melon seed, for food. 

If they throw their seed about the cage without eating 
it is an indication that they need purging. Give them 
rape seed with a lettuce leaf or a little chickweed seed 
which will soon relieve. 

When paired, the hen is sometimes " eggbound," and 
falls off the perch on her back, and if not helped dies 
For this take her out of the cao:e and rub on the oil of 
sweet almonds gently on the lower part of the body 
which enables them to discharge the egg. A piece of 
mortar laid in the cage will also relieve. This should be 
fcept in, to prevent this difficulty. 

If they break a leg take out the perches and put soft 
hay at the bottom of the cage, also their food. Their 
cage should be covered that they may not be disturbed. 

Birds in moulting sometimes lose their song ; good and 
flourishing food will restore; put liquorice in the water. 

If a bird should have a swelling on the beak or foot 
wash it with sweet oil or miik — taking care to keep the 
cage very clean, that no dirt or dust adhere to the sore, 

GENERAL D I R E C T ». N S . 

To keep canaries healthy, the cag^ should be washed 
as often as once in two weeks and often cleaned. Fresh 
lettwce or cabbage may be given them in July and August, 
plantain is also good, it rriay be given in hot weather three 
times a day. Lettuce seed and plantain seed is also good 
to be given as food, mixed in a small pot. In hot weather 
they should have clean water in pans once a day to wash 
and bathe in, which greatly refreshes them. A piece of 
cuttlefish bone oi sand, should be in the cage to keep 
them in a healthy condition. Their fountains should be 
filled, and the water fountains changed every day. The 
bird seed is a mixture alread}^ prepared, to be used as it 
is. Sponge cake may he oiven occasionally, but food con- 
taining salt is injurious; crackers and sweet apples, worms* 
are also good. 



78 SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 

To dislifiguish the male from female, it is observed that 
a streak of bright yellow may be noticed over the eyes 
and under the throat, his head is wider and longer and in 
general is much higher colored, his feet too are larger. 
They also begin to warble first, which is often at a month 
old. They are quicker, more taper and sprightlier than 
the hens. If the hen lays, take out the egg and substi 
tute an ivory or wooden one, as they then will hatch al» 
at the same time. If the hen does not lay before eight 
o'clock in the morning, she is ill and needs remedies 
spoken of before. 

Canaries may be taught to sing entire tunes by means 
of a flageolet or bird organ, in the following manner. In 
ten or twelve days, when he begins to feed himself, take 
him away from all the other birds, or sooner if he begins 
to sing. Let his cage be covered with a thin linen cloth 
eight days; then take the instrument and play one tune 
five or six times a day for fifteen days, then remove the 
linen cloth and substitute a green or red one of a thick 
material. He must remain covered in this way until he 
is perfect in the air you wish him to learn. During this 
time it is best to put in his .seed at night, that his attention 
be not divided. The organ should be sweet toned, as 
they copy with great exactness. Some learn in two, 
and others in six months. This makes a bird a great 
favorite and of course valuable. 

TREATMENT OF THE MOCKINGBIRD. 

This is one of the sweetest songsters in the Universe ; 
he can imitate the whole grove of melody, and of him- 
self can make a concert ; his imitative powers display the 
Creator's wisdom and goodness in a greater measure than 
any other bird. He can be made so docile as to perch 
and sing upon the hand , he never tires in his sweet em- 
ployment ; night and day he warbles incessanth^ so that 
the American Nightingale (as he is sometimes called) 
\s like that of which Cov^-per says, 

" Ten thousand warblers cheer the day 
And one the live-lono; night." 

The Ireatmf'nt of ihe INFocking Biid is net very pecu 



SKILFUL HOUSEWIFE'S BOOK. 179 

liai or troublesome, on!y requiring to be fed every morn* 
ing with Indian meal wet with milk not very stijQT. Whor- 
tleberries, Cedar, Elder and Pokeberries may be given to 
them freely, also wild cherries in the month of October 
and Novem.ber may be used. It is a good plan to dry 
them for winter use ; these birds thrive best with a great 
deal of natural food. An egg boiled hard and grated is 
ffood, also a small piece of raw minced beef to be given 
/M^casionally. During the summer, air is beneficial, but 
not the sun. A little water, in a cup for washing once a 
week, is of service, but the greatest care is required when 
moulting, which is from August till November. He 
should be kept from cold draughts of air and well sup- 
plied with berries, spiders and grasshoppers, as they live 
in their native woods mostly on insects. They should be 
fed and watered regularly every morning by eight o'clock. 
When this bird becomes sickly treat him very kindly, 
give him spiders daily, also meal worms, which may be 
found in granaries. Put gravel on the bottom of the cage, 
and keep them quiet. 

The male is known from the female by a regular line 
of white feathers in the wing, which in a fine bird forms 
almost a curve from the shoulder to the tip of the wing. 
They are after all difficult to distinguish, as some of the 
finest birds when young are found to have been irregularly 
marked. They are not completely plumed until they 
are two years old. They sing from January until the 
last of August. 

AMERICAN YELLOW BIRD. 

This bird is very common in the middle states, and par- 
takes much of the nature of the Canary. They are of a 
ch-'ir yellow, dark wings w^ith a dark spot on the head : 
',/iey are admired both for their plumage and their song. 
If placed near a Canary they will acquire many of theii 
notes. It should be an old established singing Canary 
otherwise they will *ake the Yellow- bird's song to the 
detriment of his own. They should be fed with yellow 
and hempseed ; two thirds of the former. A leaf of let-^ 
tuce, cabbage, or a piece of apple is of service. StreTy 
a little brown gravel on the ^ cage 



ISO SKILFUL HOCBEWIFe's BOOK. 

CAROLINA RED BIRD. 

This bird is indigenous to the Southern States, and ta 
Beldom seen north of Virginia. They are greatly admired 
foi their brilliant plumage, being a fine scarlet with a 
beautiful topped head : Their notes are free, but not par- 
ticularly sweet. Being a southern bird they delight in a 
■warm temperature, of which care must be taken in win- 
ter. Their natural food is rice. The rough or unhulled 
rice mixed with hemp seed, which may be found already 
mixed, should be kept for them. A small quantity of 
cracked corn is of service. The same directions apply to 
the Java Sparrow. 

THE AMERICAN ROBIN. 

This bird is not the robin redbreast of Europe, ours is a 
much larger bird. Their plumage (the male) is a rich 
hazel colour, with clear white stripes under the throat : 
the back is of a dark brown, eyes very sharp, of a dark 
hazel with a delicate outward ring, their carriage is erect 
and bold, which is pleasing, they can be tamed to come 
out of their cage at the call of a name, they can be taught 
to imitate a flute with surprising accuracy. It is related 
of one that he whistled a tune so correctly that it might 
have been mistaken for a flute or flageolet. There has 
been one kept by a gentleman that played on band instru- 
ments, and the bird caught the marches, to the astonish- 
ment of every one that heard it. They are treated like 
the Mocking bird. 

HOW TO TAKE CARE OP RABBITS. 

There are several varieties, but the broad chested and 
short legged are the best. Rabbits require much the 
same food as sheep and generally the treatment so far as 
food is concerned. They should be fed three times a day 
with dry substantial food. The grain best for them is 
oats, peas, wheat, pollard or shoris, and some use buck- 
wheat. The greens and roots the same as for cattle and 
sheep — carrots, Jerusalem artichokes, boiled potatoes, 
lucerne, clover, cabbage leaves, tares, etc. The best 
dried hei bage is clover, hay, and pea and bean straw. 

The utensils used for feeding them should be made ol 



SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 181 

something they cannot destroy, as they are apt t«) gnaw 
all wood. They will rear five or six litters in a season, 
and increase rapidly, as they produce five or six at a 
time. A warren should be provided for their use with 
artificial mounds of sand where they can provide them- 
seiv^es sleeping places, &c. 

Rabbits are eagerly sought in market. Some of the 
larsjer kinds if cooked in the same way are equal in fla-^ 
rour to a turkey, and are highly prized. Rabbits are in 
perfection at the fourth or sixth month, then they be- 
come more dry in flesh and somewhat hard. Three 
months is the time allowed to make a rabbit fat and ripe. 
For the iable or the invalid their flesh is equal to poultry. 
If they are ever diseased, it is in consequence of too 
much green food, and may be remedied by using grain and 
dry food. 

THE MANAGEMENT OF HENS. 

Their habitation in winter should be warm, and if con- 
venient made to come to the ground and supplied with 
old plastering, ashes, pulverized oyster shells, charcoal, 
fresh water once or twice a week. Beef's liver or some 
other kind of meat, baked or boiled potatoes warm, 
fragments of cooked vegetables, and keeping corn always 
by them, is the best manner of feeding them, and they 
thus are always sufficiently fat for the table. It is a good 
plan to soak their corn, and when they have it always iu 
their trough they take but a few kernels at a time, but 
when irregularly fed they will eat too much and stop lay- 
ing, and not unfrequently become diseased. 

Hen houses should be kept clean, their roosts also. 
Broken or bad eggs should not be allowed to remain in 
the nests, and it is well to have lime or ashes at the bot- 
tom under the hay. Dirty water should not be given-— 
their food should be fresh and free from fermentation, and 
in this way from a flock of a dozen hens a family may 
have plenty of fresh eggs during the year. 

To prevent lice, a mixture of sulphur in their food once 
B fortnight should be given, and it is also a remed^y — it 
may be given- in small quantities to young chickens for 
the same purpose. 



183 SKILFUL HOUSEWIFE S BOOK. 

CHOICE RECEIPTS FOR DYEING. 

GENERAL RULES. 

The materials should be clean, rinsed from soap, and 
entirely wet, that they may not spot. Light colors 
should be steeped in brass, tin, or earthen, and if set at 
all, with alum. Dark colors should be steeped in iron 
and set with copperas. 

FOR SKY BLUE. 

Get the blue composition. — It may be found at the 
Druggists or Clothiers for a shilling an ounce. If the 
articles are not white, the old colors should be all dis 
charged by soap or a strong tartaric acid water, then 
rinse. Twelve or sixteen drops of the composition stir- 
red into a quart bowl of soft warm water and strained if 
settlings are seen, will dye a great many articles. If you 
w'ant a deeper color, add a few drops more of the com- 
position. If you wish to color cotton goods, put in 
pounded chalk to destroy the acid, which is very destruc- 
tive to all cotton. Let it stand until the effervescence 
subsides, and then it may be safely used for cotton as well 
as silk. 

FOR LILAC. 

Take a little pinch of Archil and put some boiling hot 
water upon it, add to it a very little lump of pearlash. 
Shades may be altered by pearlash, common salt, or wine. 

A PURPLE SLATE. 

One paper of ink powder, one quart of vinegar, suflSi" 
cient water to wet the articles well. Done in brass. 

NANKIN COLOR. 

A pail full of lye with a piece of copperas half as big 
as a hen's egg boiled in it, will produce a nankin color 
that will not fade. 

A COMMON SLATE. 

Tea grounds boiled in iron and set with copperas, w'lW 
make a good slate. Also birch bark boiled in copper, 
brass, or tin, and set with copperas will produce a fine 
slate ; set with alum a bright nankir !oIor, 



SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 1^ 

LEMON COLOR. 

Peach leaves, bark scraped from the barberry bush, saf- 
fron, etc., steeped in water and set with alum, will color 
a bright lemon, drop in a little gum Arabic to make the 
articles stiff. 

ROYAL PURPLE. 

Soak logwood chips in soft water until the strength is 
9i:ty then add alum, a teaspoonful to a quart of the liquor, 
rt this is not bright enough, add more alum. Rinse and 
tiy. When the dye is exhausted, it will color a fine 
Jlac. 

CRIMSON PER POUND. 

One ounce of cream tartar, two ounces of powdered 
alum, one ounce of cochineal, two drachms of powdered 
sal ammonia, quarter an Ounce of pearlash, six ounces 
wheat bran. Take a brass or copper kettle with four 
gallons of rain water; when at scalding heat, add the cream 
tartar and alum. Let the liquor boil, then put in the 
cloth, stirring it frequently for an hour and a half Take 
vut the cloth, rinse it in cool water and air it. Empty the 
dye and put in as much clean soft water as before ; when 
olood warm, add the bran tied in a bag, take off the scum 
as it rises, while the w^ater heats moderately. Take out 
the bag, add one ounce of cochineal, boil it, put in the 
cloth, stir it for an hour, rinse in cold water. Empty the 
dye, and put in as much clear water as before; when as 
warm as the hand can bear, put in the sal ammonia, when 
dissolved put in the cloth, move it hastily for five minutes 
and then drain. Now add the pearlash and mix it. 
vVhen almost scalding hot, put in the cloth and move it 
constantly for ten minutes. Take it out, air, and rinse it, 
and the color will be permanent and beautiful. 

GREEN PER POUND. 

If you cannot get the blue composition, or prefer to 
prepare it, the following is a receipt for making it. In- 
gredients for the whole, one ounce and a half oil of vitriol, 
quarter ounce of indigo, one ounce of cream tartar, two 
ounces alum, eight ounces fustic. Prepare the compound 
in the following mannrr. Put ti^e oil of vitriol in a glazed 



184 SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 

earthen jar, and add the indigo pounded fine and sifted. 
Stir it hastily with a stick to produce general fermenta- 
tion. When done add half a tablebpoonfui of water, stii 
it, and in one day it will be fit for use. If it does not fer- 
ment, it is not good. To dye, prepare a brass or coppel 
kettle with three gallons of water per pound of woolen, 
add the cream tartar and alum when the water is scalding 
hot. Make it boil. When dissolved, put in the cloth 
and boil one hour and a half, stirring occasionally. Then 
take it out, diain and air it. Put in water enough ti 
make up the deficiency caused by boiling, and add twc 
thirds of the compoun !, mixing it well. Then put it in 
again, keeping the dye only at scalding heat, moving it 
often in the dye. After half an hour take it out, air, and 
rinse it. Put the fustic in a thin bag, boil it in the liquor 
an hour and a half. Take out the bag and put in the 
woolen, boil gently more than an hour, airing it once in 
le time. If you wish to make a different shade, aftei 
airing it, add a little more of the compound, or fustic, as 
ne case may be. Air and rinse it. 

ORANGE PER POUND. 

One ounce of annatto or otter, two ounces of pearlash. 
Cut the annatto and put it in a bag, soak it in two and 
a half gallons of water. Add to the above one ounce of 
pearlash and boil it one hour. Wet your woolen in hot 
water, drain it, and put it in the dye. Stir it one hour 
while it boils. Dry and then rinse. 

CINNAMON COLOR. 

For twenty-four yards of woolen cloth, take three 
pounds of ground camwood, three pecks of butternut 
bark. Put your water in a brass or iron kettle, and let 
it boil a few minutes to extract the strength. Put in your 
cloth, stirring it often, and let it boil an hour or more. 
Then take it out and air it. Put it in the same length of 
time, and air it as before. If the color is not dark 
enough, dissolve a little copperas in hot water, and add to 
the dye. Boil the cloth a few minutes and rinse in ccld 
water 



SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 185 

SCARLET. 

Dip the clolh in a solution of alkaline or metalic salt, 
then in a cochineal dye and let it remain sometime, and it 
will come out permanently colored. Another m^chod. 
Half a pound of madder, half an ounce cream tartar, one 
ounce marine acid, to a pound of cloth. Put it all to- 
gether and bring the dye to a scalding heat. Put in your 
materials and they will be colored in ten minutes. The 
dye must be only scalding hot. Rinse your goods m cold 
water as soon as they come from the dye. 

TO COLOR A BRIGHT MADDER. 

For one pound of yarn or cloth, take three ounces of 
madder, three ounces of alum, one ounce of cream tartar. 
Prepare a brass kettle with two gallons of water, bring 
the liquor to a steady heat. Then add your alum and 
tartar and bring it to a boil. Put in your cloth and boil 
it two hours, take it out and rinse it in cold water. Emp- 
ty your kettle and fill it with as much water as before, 
then add your madder, rub it in fine in the water before 
your cloth is in. When your dye is as warm as you can 
bear your hand in, then put in your cloth, and let it lie 
one hour, and keep a steady heat, keep it in motion con- 
stantly, then bring it to a boil fifteen minutes, then air and 
rinse it. If your goods are new, use four ounces of mad- 
der to a pound. 

DIFFERENT MODES OF DYING BLACK. 

Rub a brass kettle with soft soap, turn it upside down 
in a warm place twenty-four hours, then fill with soft 
water, rubbing the verdigris from the kettle into the wa- 
ter. Put your logwood in a bag and soak in a warm 
place several hours. Put your cloth in wet, and boii 
gently two hours or more, airing constantly and stirring 
well. Wash thoroughly before dyeing, 

ANOTHER BIOUE. 

Soak your logwood chips in warm soft water one day 
to extract the strength, take out the chips and put in j'oui 
poods, and soak them until well saturated with dye, stir- 
ring and turning often through the day. Then take out 
your goods and air them. Put an ounce of copperas ii 



186 SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 

the dye, and when dissolved, dip your materials, raising 
and turning often a few minutes. Then take them out, 
air and dry. Then wash in suds and sweet milk thor- 
oughly and rinse, and you v/ill have a fine black. 

A N O T H*E R. 

Logwood and elder, or vinegar, in iron, makes a goo^ 
black for woolens. 

Black inkpowder boiled in vinegar and set with a small 
bit of copperas makes a good black. 

MAKING SOAP, <fec. 

Soap cannot be made unless the lye is of the right 
strength, it must not be too weak nor too strong. And 
it sometimes occurs that when the lye is of the right 
strength that it will not form soap, the reason is, that 
from exposure to atmospheric air it is deprived of a pro- 
perty essential to success. This may be remedied by 
lime. After boiling it with suitable proportions of grease 
and lye, and not being successful, put in a lump of lime, 
if not enough put in more and it will form soap, when 
every hope of success had fled. 

Lye should be just strong enough to bear an egg, as 
large a spot as a shilling piece if it sinks below, or is 
borne up half way it, will not do. Use three pounds of 
grease to a pail full of lye, and when it boils thick, it is 
ready to put away. Potash will make soap if dissolved 
by boiling, but it is not as good as hard wood ashes, put 
up in barrels or leaches for lye. To make a barrel of 
soap it will require five or six bushels of ashes, with four 
quarts of stone lime, if slacked,, double the quantity. The 
lime should not be put at the bottom of the leach, but 
dissolved in two or three pails of boiling water, and 
turned on the ashes, after it has run a pail full or tw* 
of strong lye. 

The barrel should have holes bored in the bottom and 
raised with four bricks, or a barrel without a bottom will 
do, with sticks and straw to keep the ashes in place, 
standing on a wide board with a channel cut for the lye 
to run. Soak the rushes by putting up a little water at a 



SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 187 

time a day or two, and then a gallon every Iiour or two, 
until the strength is exhausted. 

VALUABLE RECEIPT FOR COLD SOAP. 

Cleanse your grease by putting in a little strong lye and 
boiling it thoroughly, then fill up with cold water, and the 
grease will float. Skim i* off, and melt it. put it in your 
barrel and place it in the sun. Try the lye to have it the 
right strength, and heat it. Put in two pounds of grease 
to a pail full of lye and stir it every day. If it does not 
begin to look like soap in five or six days, add a little hot 
lye; if this does not help it, add grease. This mode some 
prefer. If made of potash, take twenty -five pounds of 
clean grease melted, eighteen pounds of potash, and dis- 
solve in four pails of water, boil until dissolved, put the 
grease and two pails of hot lye in a barrel, the next day 
another, and the next day another. Then fill up the bar- 
rel with hot water, a pail each day, stirring it well, and it 
will be nice soap. The sediment of the potash bad. 

HARD SOAP. 

Dissolve twenty-five pounds of white potash in three 
pails of water. Heat twenty pounds of strained grease 
and add the lye and boil together until thick. Take it 
from the fire, stand in cold water until it becomes thin. 
Then put to each pail of soap a pint of salt and stir it 
well. Let it cool, and when hard take it from the lye 
and heat it over a slow fire. If you wish it yellow color 
put in a little palm oil and turn it in wooden vessels. 
When cold separate it again from the lye, cut it in bars 
and let them stand in the sun several days to dry. 

ANOTHER MODE. 

Take eight pounds of soft soap, if you wish it nice, use 
that made of olive oil, boil it two hours with six pounds 
of common salt and it will make five pounds of hard soap. 
Add a little rosin when you melt it over, and if you w*sh 
it nice, scent it with fragrant oil. 

"WINDSOR AND CASTILESOAP. 

Slice the best white soap as thin as possible and melt 
it over a slow fire. Take it from the fire, and when luke- 



188 SKILFUL HOUSEWIFE S BOOK 

Warm add oil of carraway enough to scent it, or other Irft 
grant oil. Turn into moulds and et it remain in a dr^ 
place five or six days. 

Castile soap is made by boiling common soft soap in 
lamp oil three hours and a half. 

NICE 8HAVIMG SOAP. 

Take a quarter of a pound of Castile soap, one cake 
of old Windsor soap, a gill of lavender water, the same 
of Cologne water, and a little alcohol. Boil all these to- 
gether until thoroughly mixed. 

BAYBERRY AND MYRTLE SOAP. 

Dissolve two pounds and a quarter of white potash in 
five quarts of water. Mix, and boil over a slow fire, ten 
pounds of bayberry tallow or myrtle w^ax, till it* turns 
soap. Then add a teacup of cold water and boil ten min- 
utes, scent with any fragrant oil and turn in moulds to 
dry. Let it stand in the moulds a week or ten days and 
then remove it. This kind is good for shaving and chapped 
hands. 

TO KEEP SOAP GREASE. 

It is often the case that no pains are taken to keep grease 
that is designed for soap away from flies and other insects, 
or from rats and mice. It may be kept clean and pure, 
so that the soap will be perfectly clean, by shutting it up 
in a box with a tight cover, or an iron pot with a close 
lid. It has been thus kept free of mould and other impu- 
rities through the heat of a long summer and is a great 
and essential improvement. 

VALUABLE MISCELLANEOUS RECEIPTS COM- 
PRISING' A VARIETY OF SUBJECTS. 

FOR INDELIBLE INK. 

To four drachms of Lunar caustic in four ounces of 
water, add sixty drops of nutgalls made strong by being 
pulverized and steeped in soft water. The mordant 
which is to be applied to the cloth before writing is com- 
posed of one ounce of pearlash dissolved in four ounces 
of water, with a little Gum Arabic dissolved in it. Wet 
the spot with this, dry anc* iron the cloth, tlun writr. 



SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 189 

TO TAKE JNIILDEW OUT OF LINEN. 

Take soap and rub it well, then scrape on some fino 
chalk, rub that also in the linen, lay it on the grass, as r* 
dries wet it a little, it will come out at twice doing. 

TO GIVE SILVER PLATE A LUSTRE. 

Dissolve alum in strong lye, skim it carefully, then mix 
i with soap, and wash your silver, using a linen rag. 

FOR RED MARKING INK. 

Half an ounce of vermilion, one drachm 6f sal of steel 
finely levigated with linseed oil to a prope ; consistency. 

RANCID OIL. 

May be restored to its original purity and sweetness, by 
being heated with a certain quantity of calcined magnesia. 

TO RESTORE THE COLOR OF WOOLEN CLOTH DIS- 
CHARGED BY AN ACID. 

Take equal parts of pearlash and quicklime dissolved 
in water and wet the parts with it. The place wet will 
become a reddish brown, a little vinegar now applied will 
restore it to its original black. 

TO TAKE GREASE OUT OF SILK. 

Apply a little magnesia to the wrong side and the spots 
will soon disappear. 

ANOTHER THAT NEVER FAILS, GOOD FOR CARPETS, 
WOOLEN, SILK, OR COTTON. 

Pulverize fine, new pipe stems vr pipes, lay it on the 
ipot, put a brown paper when you can, under the cloth, 
And one over the powder, set on it a warm iron, and it 
will extract all the grease, if it remains sufficiently long. 

ANTIDOTE AGAINST MICE. 

Gather wild mint, put it where you wish to keep them 
out, and they will not trouble you. 

BLOATING IN CATTLE. 

A tablespoonful of spirits of ammonia for an ox or a 
^;ow, a teaspoonful for a sheep diluted with water. 

TO DESTROY RED ANTS. 

C^*ack shag bark walnuts and la}' where you wish to 



190 SKII.FLL housewife's BOOK. 

collect them, and then wet the cracks where Jiey cooM 
with corrosive sublimate 

TO M A iC E WAFERS 

Mix flour aad waier to a thick paste, and have your 
flat irons at a moderate heat, lay on just oil enough tc 
keep them from sticking, place one between a couple ot 
common chairs with the face upward, color the paste with 
Venetian, or vermilion, or prussian blue, and lay on a very 
small quantity on the face of the iron, have the face of the 
other oiled aftd set it on the other, and it will press it out 
and scald it through. Take this off and continue the pro- 
cess until finished. Have something prepared to cut them 
with, and you have perfect wafers. If they are not cut 
they answer a good purpose for papers, etc. They will 
be thick or thin according to the quantity used of the 
paste. Half a teacupful will make a large supply. 

TO MAKE COURT PLASTER. 

Dissolve isingglass, suspend your silk on a wooden 
frame by tacks, apply the glue with a brush and let it 
Iry, repeat it, and when dry cover it with a strong tinc- 
ture of Balsam of Peru. This is the real English court- 
plaster, it is pliable and never breaks. The more com- 
mon is covered over with the white of egg and dried. 

WOUNDS ON CATTLE. 

The most aggravated wounds are easil}" cured with the 
yolk of eggs mixed with the spirits of turpentine. Bathe 
the part several times a day and the cure will be effected 
in forty-eight hours. 

TO MAKE A SIMPLE WHITE PAINT. 

Skim milk two quarts, fresh slack lime eight ounceg, 
oil six ounces, white Burgundy pitch two ounces, Spanish 
white three pounds. The lime to be slacked in watei 
exposed to the air, mixed in about one fourth of the milk 
the oil in which the pitch is to be previously dissolved 
to be added a little at a time. Then the rest of the milk, 
and afterward the Spanish white. This quantity wiiJ 
cover twenty-seven yards two coats, and the expense not 
more than ten pence. 



•KILFUL HCISEWIFE's BOOK. 191 

D THOUGH SIMPLE LIQUID BLACKING 

Ivory black two ounces, sweet oil half a tablespoonful. 
brown sugar half an ounce. Mix them well and then 
gradually add half a pint of small beer, and a teaspoonful 
of gum arable. As it dissolves, shake it well and it is 
ready for use. 

1 ) MAKE A VARNISH FOR CRAYONS, PENCIL DRAWINGS, ETC. 

A thin wash of isingglass or gum arable pu- on with 
jt^re, will prevent them rubbing out. The sams effect it 
IS said may be produced by skimmed milk. It must be 
perfectly free from cream. Lay the drawing flat upon 
the surface of the paper, and take it up by one corner 
until it drains and dries. 

INK POWDER FOR IMMEDIATE USE. 

Reduce to powder ten ounces of gall nuts, three ouncea 
of green copperas, two ounces each of powdered aiunr, 
and gum arabic. Put a little of this mixture into white 
wine and it will be fit for immediate use. 

TO PREVENT INK FROM FREEZING.. 

Instead of water use brandy with the same ingredients 
that you use for any ink and it will never freeze. 

TO PREVENT MOULD IN INKS. 

A quarter of a pint of spirits of wine may be added 
The most simple and most effectual is to infuse a piece of 
salt as big as a hazel nut in each quart. 

TO PREVENT TEAKETTLES COATING WITH LIME. 

Put the shell of an oyster in the teakettle and the lime 
will adhere to it, instead of coating the sides. 

TO MAKE YELLOW BUTTER IN WINTER. 

Just before the termination of churning, put in the yolii 
of eggs. It has been kept a secret, but its value require? 
publicity. 

TO PRESERVE MILK. 

Put a sjDoonful of horseradish into a pan of milk, and it 
will remain sweet for several da3^s, either in the open i\ir 
or in a cellar, while other milk will sour 



t92 SKILFUL HOTTSEWIFE's BOOK. 

ANTI-MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF THE ONION 

The magnetic power of a compass needle, will oe en- 
tirely discharged or changed by being touched with the 
juice of an onion. 

" WHITE WASH OF THE PRESIDENT'S HOUSE IMPROVED." 

Take half a bushel of unslacked lime, and slack it with 
ooiling water, cover it during the process. Strain it and 
idd a peck of salt dissolved in warm water, three pounds 
of ground rice boiled to a thin paste put in boiling hot, 
half a pound of Spanish whiting, and a pound of cleai ^^lue 
dissolved in warm water. Mix and let it stand several 
days. Keep it in a kettle, and put on as hot as possible 
with a brush. It is said to look as well, and last as long, 
as oil paint on wood, brick, or stone. The expense is so 
trifling, that great improvements should be the result. 

A SIMPLE WHITEWASH. 

Slack as above, and add to each pail-ful two double 
handsful of salt. Some think it an addition to add a double 
handful of fine sand, or siftfru ashes, to make it thick like 
cream for the first coat It covers smoke much better 
This is better to be used hot. Coloring matter may l^ 
used if desired. 

HOW TO HAVE A SHARP RAZOR. 

Take a strap of thick leather, such as is used for har- 
ness, and fasten at each end upon a piece of wood. Then 
rub upon its surface a piece of tin until it is smooth. It is 
said to be worth all th« patent straps that have ever been 
invented. 

TO MAKE WATER COLD, FOR SUMMER. 

It may be kept nearly as cold as ice water, by surround- 
ing the pitcher or jar with several folds of coarse cotton, 
to be constantly wet. The evaporation carries off the 
heat inside, and it will be reduced almost to freezing. In 
India and other tropical regions this is common. 

PAINTING HOUSES. 

Repeated ei leriments prove that paint applied between 
Vovember an/ March, will last twice as long as that ap- 
Vi. ^d in warm vv^^ather. The reason is that in cold vvrTuh 



SKILFUL 1 OUSEWIFE's BOOK. 193 

er the component parts of the paint form a hard substance 
on the surface,as hard almost as glass, but in warm weather 
the oil penetrates the boards, and the paint soon wears off. 

BATHING. 

Deaths are often recorded from premature bathing. It 
produces cramps, and there cannot be too much caution 
used in this matter. Never allow it when the water and 
weather is cold. 

EFFECTS OF VEGETABLES UPON ANIMALS. 

Horses that avoid the bland turnip, will grow fat on 
rhubarb. Pigs will feed on henbane, but are destroyed 
by common pepper. Goats will feed on water-hemlock — 
though to other animals they are rank poison. 

MULBERRY LEAF PAPER 

Paper has been made of mulberry leaves, that has been 
used for writing and printing. It is said to he smooth, 
strong and delicate, and may be either white or colored. 

RHUBARBPLANT. 

The stalk of this plant may be used without danger, but 
the leaf is .said to contain oxalic acid, and if cooked as 
greens occasions vomiting, and sometimes death. 

THE SUN-FLOWER. 

One hundred pounds of this seed afford forty pounds 
of oil. The refuse of the seed after being expressed is 
good food for animals. The leaves make cigars that are 
used in medicine ; the stalk affords a superior alkali, and 
the comb of the seed is choice food for swine. 

PREPARING QUIILS, BETTER THAN THOSE OF HAMBURG. 

Suspend in a boiler bunches of quills, fill with water 
just to touch their nibs. Close it steam tight, boil the 
water four hours, and take them out. The next day cut 
tiie nibs and draw out the pith, and rub them with a piece 
of cloth and expose them to a moderate heat. The follow- 
ing day ihey will have the hardness of bone, without being 
orittle, and be as transparent as glass. 

FOR SPRAINS AND BRUISES IN HORSES 

Dissolve an ounce of camphor in eight ounces of spiiits 



194 SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 

of wine. Then add one ounce of spirit of turpentine. Od« 
ounce of spirit of sal ammonia ; half an ounce of oil of 
origanum ; one large tablespoonful of laudanum. Rub in h 
quarter of an hour with the hand four times a day. 

TO MAKE INK FOR MARKING LINEN WITH TYPE. 

Dissolve one part of asphaltum, in four parts of oil of tur 
pentine, add lampblack or black lead in fine powder, it 
ivf&cient quantity to render of proper consistence to print 
with type. 

TO MAKE PATENT CEMENT. 

Lime, clay, and oxide of iron, separately calcined and 
reduced to a fine powder, are to be intimately mixed. 
Keep it close, and when used mix with a little water. It 
will make cracks in wood water-tight, etc. 

TO REMOVl GREASE FROM BOOKS. 

Lay upon the spoi, a little magnesia or powdered pre 
pared chalk, and under it the same ; set on it a warm 
flat iron, and as soon as the grease is melted, it will be all 
absorbed, and leave the paper clean. 

TO DESTROY CROWS IN CORNFIELDS. 

Steep corn in arsenic and place where they come, and 
it is said they will never come again. 

TO KEEP HAMS IN SUMMER. 

Take them early in Spring, and pack them in barrels 
with oats, barley, bran, or anything of the like, to protect 
them from flies etc., and tht-y will keep good. Another 
SURE way is to rub the hams with pulverized nitre ; let 
them remain in the cellar three days, smoke a barrel three 
days, and make a pickle of salt and sugar, put in your 
hams and the work is done for the year. 

SIMPLE MODE OF PURIFYING WATER. 

A tablespoonful of powdered alum, sprinkled int( i 
hogshead of water, and stirred, will in the course of a i jw 
hours precipitate to the bottom all the impure particles and 
leave the water as clean and pure as spring water Foui 
gallons would need but a teaspoonful. 



SKILFUL housewife's BtOK. Ii(5 

CEMENT FOR STOVE PIPES. 

Cracks in stoves and pipes may be closed by a paste 
nade of salt, ashes and water. Iron filings, sal ammonia 
%nd water, make a harder and more durable cement. 

OIL OF PUMPKIN SEED. 

One gallon of seed will give about half a gallon of lamp 
oil, and it may be used as olive oil. It is pressed lite 
flaxseed. 

SOAP FOR PLANTS. 

This is excellent for asparagus and peas, aad for plants 
in pots it gives them a fine deep healthy green, and makes 
them strono; and luxuriant. 

TO PREVENT DANGER FROM ICE. 

You can keep pavements and step stones clear of ice 
by sprinkling coarse salt on the ice. It will cause it to 
crack and thaw, can be easily removed or swept away 

THE BEECH TREE. 

It is said that this tree is never struck by lightning. It 
has been noticed in Europe and America. Preserve and 
rear them for the protection of animals on your plantation. 

GRAPE VINES FOR BEES. 

It is said to be the most convenient and best thing for 
bees to alight on when they swarm, and should be always 
planted near them for that purpose. 

ICE VAULTS IN CELLARS. 

Select a suitable place, and dig a hole five oi six feet 
square, and nearly as deep. Wall it with brick or stone. 
It may be improved by a double cover filled with tan bark, 
or tan laid over the ice six inches deep, and then a com- 
mon cover. 

REMOVING PUTTY. 

Moisten the putty with nitric or muriatic acid, and it 
may be removed at once. Strong soap will answer the 
same purpose. 

CEMENTING GLASS OR CHINA. 

Provide some very finely powdered quick lime in a 
rr.uslin !)a'j: T;ik'^ ibr t:rokir! ware p.iid rub the ('{Ji:* aj 



196 SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 

with the beaten white of an egg. Take the lime and sift 
it thick over the edge rubbed with egg, press and bind the 
pieces together, and let them remain several weeks. For 
coarser crockery, rub the parts with white paint, made of 
white lead and linseed oil, press and bind until fully dry. 
They will last as long as new. 

TOMATOES FOR COWS. 

This has been tried, and is siid will improve the quan 
tity and richness of the milk, giving to the cream and but- 
ter a rich golden color, and will be found a cheap article 
of food. 

MILKING. 

One steady hand that will do it quick and easy, should 
always milk. It should be done at regular hours, and 
care should be taken to do it clean. 

LABOR-SAVING SOAP. 

Take two pounds of sal soda, two pounds of yellow bar 
soap and ten quarts of water. Cut the soap in thin slices, 
and boil togetiier two hours, strain and it will be fit for 
use. Put the clothes in soak the night before you wash, 
and to every pail of water in which you boil them, add a 
pound of soap. They will need no rubbing, merely rinse 
Ihem out, and they will be perfectly clean and white. 

A FIRE PROOF GLUE OR CEMENT. 

Mix and boil together quicklime and linseed oil. It 
ihould be as thick as soft puUy, and then spread on tin 
plates to dry hard. This when used should be melted 
like common glue and used while hot. 

OIL OF FLOWERS. 

Split cotton wadding and dip in pure Florence or sweet 
oil, lay this in a jar or china dish, cover it with a thick 
layer of rose leaves, or any odoriferous flower or plant, 
from which you wish perfume. Then lay o^e^ another 
layer of cotton steeped in oil, and so on until filled. Cover 
it closely and place in the sun a week. Throw away the 
leaves and squeeze the oil in vials for use. The scented 
cotton will perfume your clothes. 



SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 
A SIMPLE AND EASY METHOD TO EXTRACT GREASE 

If the spot is small and light, simply laying magnesit ^ 
botn sides, and warming it at the fire will do, by repeff* ing 
^. But if larger .set on a warm iron. The pipe stems 
are surer for a large spot. 

THE RED ANT. 

Where they are troublesome, it is said that sage leaves 
fresh picked, will keep them away if scattered in places 
you wish to protect. 

POULTRY. 

No poultry should be kept longer than three years 
The Poland topknots are considered the best for laying, 
and are the most hardy. They should be kept in winter 
where it is warm, have plenty of food and water, a box ot 
gravel and lime to wallow in, and to pick from ; some fresh 
meat w hen they cannot get insects ; the scraps from tallow 
factories are good, and you will have no lack of fresh eggs. 

THE BENEFIT OF TOADS, 

Never destroy them, keep them in your garden to des- 
troy bugs and fleas. They will do more to preserve a 
garden than a man from insects. 

BLUE INK SPOTS. 

Blue ink should be first washed in sweet milk, and then 
tub strong soft soap on the spot and it will soon disappear. 

STAGGERS IN SWINE. 

Before giving anything, pour soft oil on the issues of 

.neir legs, and rub them well, then give as much new rum 

and pepper as you can make them take with a spoon. 

This it is said has cured those that were nearly dead. No 

'ISEe should be lost in giving something heating within. 

GAPES IN CHICKENS. 

A preventive is said to be, vinegar that has stood in iron, 
to put a little in their food every few days. It is caused 
by worms in the throat, and it is said there is no effectual 
remedy better than giving sulphur in their drink, a pepper 
corn occasionally. They may be reache<l and taken ouf 
of the throat with the end of a feather. 



198 SKILFUL HOUSEWIFE'S BOOK. 

TO TEMPER NEW OVENS AND IRON WAKS. 

Before new ov^ens are used, they should be heated half 
a day and then put up the hd to keep the heat in. When 
heated the second time, they may be used for baking. If 
not treated in this way they wrll never retain heat well. 

New flat-irons should be heated half a day before they 
are used. Iron ware of all kinds, and stoves should be 
heated gradually at first or they may crack. Cold water 
if poured on hot iron will crack it. 

TO RELIEVE CHOKED ANIMALS 

Take a flexible rod about four feet long, and three 
fourths of an inch in diameter, wind on the butt end, tow 
or cotton, and tie a rag over that and grease it. To keep 
the mouth open place a piece of hard wood one foot long, 
four inch<>s wide, one inch thick with a hole bored in the 
centre for the rod to pass through, and then push it gently 
down the throat, and it is said to be always effectual and to 
give immediate relief. It is also said that a round stick 
about the size and length of a rolling pin with a cord tied 
m the notches in the ends, placed in the animaPs mouth 
and fastened to each horn, will, if allowed a little time, 
unchoke them and save the suffering creature from a 
lingering death. 

COUGHIN HORSES. 

It is said that the small twigs of cedar chopped fine and 
mixed with their grain will cure a cough, and that haa 
been used with complete success. 

ANINSECTTRAP. 

Scoop out the inside of a turnip, scollop the edges, nd 
place it downward on the earth. The insects will pass 
'mto it as a place of retreat through the holes, and the cu- 
cumbers, squashes, melons, etc., may soon be clear of 
them. 

RED RASPBERRY LEAVES. 

It is asserted that the fine green leaves of the red rasp- 
berry gathered in a fair day, and cvired in an open room, 
)4i;^ tiot inff^rior to the China teas. 



SKILFUL housewife's BOOK 199 

TO REMOVE GREASE FROM BOARDS. 

Mtfisten clay or ground water lime with warm water, 
<od after scraping the spot with a knife, lay it on and let 
it remain all night. If necessary repeat the process. 
This will soon remove it all. 

TO CLEAN PAINT THAT IS NOT VARNISHED. 

Take a flannel and squeeze nearly dry out of warm 
water, and dip in a little whiting, apply to the paint and 
with a little rubbing it will instantly remove grease, smoke, 
or other soil. Wash with warm water and rub dry with 
a soft cloth. It will not injure the most delicate color, 
and makes it look as well as new, besides, it preserves the 
paint much longer than if cleaned with soap and water. 

REMEDY FOR POISON. 

^ is said that a gill of melted lard poured down the 
throM of a sheep poisoned by eating laurel is a certain 
cure. 

BEES. 

lu winter the best place in which to keep bees is a dry, 
:1a, and dark room, or outhouse. The colder the winter 
the better if the air is dry. Damp is injurious and will 
cause mould in the comb and among the bees. 

COCKROACHES 

Procure from t' )ruggist a small quantity of poke- 
root, boil in water til the juice is extracted, mingle the 
liquor with molasses and spread it on large platters or 
soup plates in places where they visit, and they will be 
slain by hundreds in the following morning. The root 
after being boiled, laid in closets, etc., will prevent their 
troubling you. 

A DELICATE CEMENT FOR GLASS OR CHINA 

One ounce of mastic and as much spirits of wme as will 
need to dissolve it. Soak an ounce of isingglass in- water 
until quite soft, then dissolve it in rum or brandy until it 
forms a strong glue, to which add a quarter of an ounce 
-jf gum ammonia, well rubbed and mixed. Put the two 
mixtures together over a gentle heat until united, and 
k'M-p in a vial well stopped. When u.sed, place the via) 



200 SKILFUL HOUSEWIFE S BOOK. 

»n a kettle of warm water, warm the glass or china, and 
apply the cement, carefully fitting it together, keeping it 
close for twelve hours at least, it will then be sound, and 
the place scarcely perceptible. 

TO KILL WEEDS IN GRAVEL AND BRICK WALKS. 

Keep them moist with brine a week in the spring, and 
tnice or four days in the fall, and it will prevent theii 
growing. 

TO TEMPER EARTHENWARE. 

When new, and before used for baking, put it in cold 
water to cover, and heat it gradually until the water boils. 
It is less likely to crack. 

FOR MAKING BLACK INK 

Take four ounces galls, two ounces copperas, one ounce 
of gum rrabic Beat the^ galls and put them in a qunrt 
of warm soft water. Soak eight or nine days in the hot 
sun, or by the fire, shaking it often. Then add the cop- 
peras and gum, and it is fit for use in two or three days. 
The gum arable must be dissolved in warm water, and a 
half ounce of alum powdered, added to the whole 

RET INK. 

Boil o-^or a slow fire four ounces of Brazil wood chips 
in a quart (-f w^ater till a third is evaporated, add while 
boiling, two drachms of alum in powder, when the ink is 
cold, strain it through fine cloth. Vinegar may be used 
instead of water. 

TO MAKE BLACKING. 

Put one gallon of vinegar into a stone jug, and one 
pound of ivory black well pulverized, a half pound of 
loaf sugar, a half ounce of oil of vitriol, and six ounces of 
sweet oil, incorporate the whole by stirring. This black- 
ing is in great repute in different countries. It is less inju- 
rious than most blackings and produces a fine polish never 
to be surpassed. 

A SALVE FOR CUTS AND SORES. 

One ounce and a half of olive oil, two ounces of white 
iiaculum, and twr ounces of beeswax, mf'lted toj^ether 



SKILFUL housewife's BOOK* 20J 

TO RENDER CLOTH WIND AND RAIN PROOF. 

Boil two pounds of turpentine, and one pound of litha 
rge in powder, and two or three pints of linseed oil. The 
article is to be brushed over and dried in the sun. 

WHITEWASH THAT WILL NOT RUB OFF. 

Mix up half a pail full of lime and water, take half a 
pint of flour and make a starch of it, and pour it into the 
whitewash while hot. Stir it well and it is ready for vse. 

TO PREVENT IRON FROM RUSTING. 

Warm it and rub it with bees -wax, put it to the fire 
until it has soaked in the wax, then rub it with a cloth. 
Another, take fresh grease and rub, soaking it in by 
the fire. 

CANDIED lemon OR PEPPERMINT FOR COLDS. 

Boil one pound and a half of sugar in a half pint of 
water till it begins to candy round the sides, put in eight 
drops of essence. Pour it upon buttered paper and cut it 
with a knife. 

TO PREVENT MOULDING IN BOOKS, INK, PASTE AND 
LEATHER. 

Collectors of books will not be sorry to learn that a few 
drops of oil of lavender will insure their libraries from 
this pest. A single drop of the same will prevent a pint 
of ink from mouldiness for any length of time. Paste 
may be kept from mould entirely by this addition, and 
leather is also effectively secured from injury by the 
game agency. 

FIRE AND WATER PROOF CEMENT. 

To a half a pint of milk, put an equal quantity oi vine- 
gar to curdle it. Take only the whey, and mix four or 
five eggs, beating the whole together. When mixed, add 
sifted quicklime until it acquires the consistence of a thick 
paste. With this, broken vessels, and cracks of all kinds 
may be mended. It dries quickly, and resists the action 
of water, and a considerable degree of fire. 

TO EXTRACT ESSENTIAL OIL FROM FLOWERS. 

Take any flowers you like, and lay a la3'er of flowers 



202 SKILFUL HOUSEWIFE'S BOOK. 

and then one of sait in an earthen jar, when filled carry 
it to the cellar j forty days after, strain the whole by pres- 
sure. Bottle that essence and expose it four or five weeks 
in the sun and dew to purify. One drop will scent a quart. 

VARNISH FOR SHOES IMPERVIOUS TO WATER. 

Take a pint of linseed oil, six ounces of beeswax, two 
ounces of resin, half an ounce of mutton tallow, and melt 
them together, stirring them well. When about milk 
warm, apply it. The leather should be dry. Repeat it a 
'ew times warming it in, and no water can pass through, 
and it greatly increases the durability of boots and shoes 

FOR CURING BEEF. 

Let your meat be cold, not frozen. For two hundred 
pounds use two quarts of molasses, half a pound of salt 
petre, half a bushel of salt. Dissolve your salt-petre in 
warm water, then add your molasses, pack down your 
beef light, putting salt in your barrel and between each 
layer, let a suitable proportion be put between each layer 
of the above composition, until it is altogether. Use four 
or five quarts of salt to make a brine to cover the beef. 
Add two ounces of pearlash to the composition, and some 
think black pepper or cinnamon a great improvement. It 
will be very sweet, tender and nice, either way. 

TO CLEAN GOLD. 

Wash it in warm suds with ten or fifteen drops of 
sal volatile. 

B EESW A X . 

To separate beeswax from the comb in the best mae- 
ner. Tie it up in a linen or woollen bag with a pebble of 
two to keep it from floating ; place it in a kettle of cola 
water and place over the fire, as the wax melts it rises tt 
the surface, while all the impurities remain in the bag. 

FOWLS. 

In winter hens should be fed in part with potatoes, tur 
nips, carrots, cabbage, etc., to supply the want of seeds 
and grass they obtain in summer, also lime and pebbles 
should be put within their reach. This treatment w\t 



SKILFUL H>0USKWIFE'S BOOK. 203 

cause them to lay in wij)ter. Bones, eggshells and soaked 
corn are good. 

FIREPROOF CEMENT. 

Take as much lime as is usual in making a pot full of 
whitewash, and let it be mixed in a pail full of water ; in 
this put two and a half pounds of brown sugar and three 
pounds of fine salt. If one pound of alum be added it 
will greatly improve the cement. Mix it well and it is 
completed. A little lampblack,* yellow ochre, or other 
coloring to change the appearance, may be introduced. 
It is used as a protection against fire, and is considered 
valuable. The French use it to preserve the roof and to 
protect it, 

A NEW RAT TRAP, 

Take a smooth kettle, fill to within six inches of the 
top with water, cover the surface with chaff or bran, place 
*t where the rats harbor, and it will drown all that get into 
»t. Thirty-six were taken in one night by this process. 

TO PROTECT GRAIN, ETC., FROM RATS. 

Green elder boughs scattered in and about places where 
ney are troublesome, it is said will protect effectually 
4gainst their depredations 

hen'seggs. 

Those that approach nearest to roundness produce fe- 
males, while those that are more pointed produce males. 

MAD DOGS, A PREVENTIVE. 

Mix a small portion of the flour of sulphur with their 
food or drink. This has been known in Europe for cen- 
turies, and is used to prevent this disease from breaking 
out among the packs of hounds upon the estates of Eng- 
lish noblemen. 

CURE FOR THE BLACK TONGUE. 

A handful of fine salt rubbed upon "the tongue of a 
horse that has this disease, will effect a cure in two or 

three applicati-ons. 

PRESERVATION OF THE DEAD. 

llio beneficia effects of this, are experienced in tho 



ft04 SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 

case of keeping bodies for the recoj^nition of friends, A 
solution of alum in hot water, in the proportion of two 
pounds to a pint, is injected through the right carotid 
arteries and veins throughout the whole body. In sum- 
mer three quarts of the solution iue required, and in win- 
ter less. This is to preserve the body in its original state 

GERMAN SILVER. 

Few are aware of the poisonous qualities of this com« 
pound. It is good for a variety of uses, but should nevei 
be used for spoons or vessels for cooking. It is composed 
of copper, arsenic, and nickel. It is oxydized by acids, 
and acts in the stomach as a slow but sure poison. 

TO CLEAN KID GLOVES. 

White kid gloves may be kept nice, by rubbing them 
when they are soiled, with india rubber. If it becomes 
necessary to wash kid gloves, take a piece of flannel, 
moisten it with a little milk, rub it on a cake of nice hard 
soap, and apply it to the soiled part of the glove. As 
soon as the dirt is removed, rub the spot with a dry piece 
of flannel. It should be done on the hand. 

TO MAKE RED SEALING WAX. 

Take of shellac well powdered, two parts, of resin and 
vermilion, each one part, mix them well together and. 
melt them over a gentle fire, and when the ingredients 
seem thoroughly incorporated, work the wax into sticks. 
When shellac cannot be procured seedlac may be substi- 
tuted. The resin should be of the whitest kind. Less 
vermilion may answer. If black is preferred, substitute 
ivory black. If green, use powdered verdigris, or any 
other color may be used. 

TO REVIVE FADED 2LACK CLOTHES. 

Boil two or three ounces of logwood in vinegar, ana 
when the color is extracted, drop in a piece of carbonate 
of iron, which is of the same nature as rust of iron, as 
large as a chestnut, let it boil. Have the coat or panta- 
loons well sponged with soap and hot water, laying them 
on a table and brushing the nap down with a sponge 
Then take the dye upon the table and sponge them a!' 



I 



SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 305 

DTP I \vith the dye, taki!)>^ care to keep them smooth and 
to brush downward. When completely wet with dye, 
dissolve s. large teaspoonful of saleratus in warm water, 
and sponge all over with this, and it sets the co-lor so 
completely, that nothing rubs off. They must not be 
wrung or wrinkled, but carefully hung up to drain. The 
brownest cloth may be made a perfect black in this sim- 
ple manner. 

TO CLEAN A COAT OR PANTALOONS. 

Take brown hard soap and rub the collar where it is 
soiled well, and wherever there is a spot of oil, also the 
cuffs, ana lower part of the sleeve. Have soft water 
boiling hot, dip out a pint, and lay the cuff and lower part 
of the sleeve in the scalding water until it acts upon the 
soap and soil, then take it out, and with a knife, or the 
nail, take off the loose dirt, then dip again, and rub down- 
ward with the sponge, and cleaning inside of the cuff well. 
Then get another pint of hot water, and do the other in 
the same way. Then the collar which will need more 
hot water. When all the most soiled places are scalded 
and sponged, then soap a little water, do the coat all over, 
rubbing downward, then rinse in the same way with warm 
water, and finish off with the sponge wrung as dry as pos- 
sible. Then hang up so as to preserve the shape, and 
drain and dry. This process will give to soiled clothes 
a lustre, and an appearance of new cloth, besides making 
them perfectly clean. Pantaloons done in the same 
manner. 

TO BLEACH WOOL, SILK AND STRAW. 

Take a barrel, or box, and nail in muslin or gauze 
around the upper part, in a way to have it hang a little 
loose. If straw, first soak them well in pearlash water 
until they are golden yellow, then lay them in loosely 
over the muslin, and when a little drained, take live coals 
into a kettle, or chaffing-dish, and sprinkle over some 
pounded brimstone, and set under the straw in the box, 
01 barrel, have it covered close at the top. Repeat this 
until they are bleached white ; they should be stirred and 
made to lie as loose as possible whenever the fire is re- 



^6 SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 

newed. Silk and wool will bleach without being wet. 
The box, or barrel, should be open at the bottom, that 
the fire may be easily put under by simply rising it at 
one side. If bonnets, straw or leghorn are stained or 
soiled, before bleaching, they should be washed clean 
with soap and water, and the stains taken out with tar- 
taric acid. This does not injure the braid, and will make 
old hats look very white. 

TO TAKE OUT FRUIT SPOTS. 

Wet the stain without dipping, and hold the part over 
a lighted common brimstone match at a proper distance 
The sulphurous gas soon causes the spots to disappear. 

TO TAKE OUT WAX. 

Put on spirits of turpentine, or sulphuric ether. 

The marks of white paint also, may be discharged in the 
same way. Holding a red hot iron near to melt, will 
sometimes answer by evaporation. 

AN IMPROVED BLACKING. 

Take of ivory black and treacle, each twelve ounces, 
spermaceti oil, four ounces, white wine vinegar, four 
pints ; mix. This not containing vitriol will not injure 
the leather. 

STOPPING A LEAK. 

Take j-ellow soap and beat it up thick with whitings 
and rub it into the leak, it v/ill be found to stop it when 
other things have failed. 

A CHEAP AND VALUABLE COMPOSITION FOR THE 
ROOFS OF HOUSES. 

Take one measure of fine sand, two measures of wood 
ashes sifted, three of slackened lime ground up with oil, 
laid on with a painter's brush, first coat thin, and the 
second thick. It adheres strongly, and resists the action 
of fire 

REMEDY AGAINST FROST. 

Deposit wet strawy compost in the forks of a fruit tree 
when in blossom to protect the fruit from frost. If ap- 
plied in the evening, a»:d frost should ocnur in the night, 



SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 207 

h Is said that it will be visible on its surface, but the fruit, 
buds, or blossoms will escape injury. 

TO KEEP LEMON JUICE. 

Buy the fruit when cheap, roll them in the hand to 
make them mellow. Squeeze the juice into a china, or 
earthen bowl, and strain it, not permitting the pulp to 
pass. Have ready ounce and half ounce vials perfectly 
dry. Fill them with the juice so near the top as to admit 
only half a teaspoonful of sweet oil into each, a little 
more in larger ones. Cork them and place them where 
it is cool. When you want it for use, take such a sized 
bottle as you will use in two or three days. Wind some 
clean cotton round a skewer, or a bit of wire, and just dip 
it in, the oil will all be absorbed, and the juice as fine as 
when first bottled. 

TO MAKE HONEY WATER. 

Put two drachms of tincture of ambergris, and as much 
tincture of musk, into a quart of rectified spirits of wine, 
ind half a pint of water. Put it in small bottles for use. 

TO REMOVE INK FROM LINEN. 

Take pure tallow, melt it, and dip the spotted part into 
(he tallow, put it in the wash, and it will become per- 
fectly white. 

CUBE FOR A WEN. 

Take alum salt, make a strong brine, simmer it on a 
fire, in which wet a piece of cloth and apply it for thirty 
successive days, and it will disappear. 

SEWING ON GLAZED CLOTH. 

Pass a cake of white soap over any stiffened material, 
ind the needle will penetrate with perfect facility. 

TO DESTROY MOTHS. 

The vegetable musk seed should be thinly laid in the 
folds of fir or woolens. These seeds are highly esteemed 
by French perfumers for their fragrance. To destroy the 
vitality of the eggs which produce moths, a weak solution 
of oxmuriate of mercury in the spirits of rosemary, half 
a drachm to a pint, or a weak solution of arseniate of 



f08 • SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 

potash in the same spirit, about fifteen grains to a pin , ift 
employed in preparing birds for stuffing, to prevent their 
being injured by moths. 

A CHEAP WATERPROOF PASTE. 

Take any kind of oil, or lard, and mix with it india 
rubber cut fine, let it simmer over a slow fire until well 
mcorporated, adding oil or lard, until it is of proper con 
sistency. 

TO KEEP AWAY MUSQUITOES. 

Attach a piece of flannel or sponge to a thread mado 
fast to the top of the bedstead, wet the flannel or sponge 
with camphorated spirits, and they will leave the room 

TO DESTROY BEDBUGS. 

Rub the bedsteads well with lamp oil, this alone is good, 
but to make it more effectual, get a sixpence worth of 
quicksilver and add to it, put it into all the cracks around 
the bed and they will soon disappear. The bedsteads 
should first be scalded, and wiped dry, then put on with 
a feather. 

TO MAKE COLOGNE WATER. 

Take a pint of alcohol, and put in thirty drops of oil of 
lemon, thirty of bergamot, and half a gill of water. If 
you desire musk, or lavender, add the same quantity of 
each. The oils should be put in the alcohol and shooh 
"Fell, before the water is added. Butt'fi it for use. 



SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 209 



ADDITIONS BY AN ENGLISH HOUSEKEEPER. 



PUDDINGS, ETC. 

PLUM PUDDING. 

One pound of flour, half a pound of suet chopped fine, 
half a pound of raisins, half a pound of currants, a quarter 
of a pound of sugar, two ounces of candied peel, the rind 
of a lemon grated, a pinch of salt, some nutmeg. Mix 
well together, and make into a stiff batter, with three eggs 
and a little milk. Boil three hours. 

CARROT PUDDING. 

Haifa pound of flour, six ounces of suet chopped, half a 
pound of currants, three table-spoonsful of sugar, a little 
spice of candied peel, half a pound of carrots, well boiled 
and rubbed through a sieve. Mix the other ingredients 
thoroughly ; then add the carrots ; boil four hours, 

LEMON PUDDING. 

The rind of one lemon, boiled tender and beat fine, with 
a little raw peel grated, six ounces of sugar sifted, four 
ounces of butter melted. Mix all together well, then add 
the yolks of six eggs, well beaten. Line a dish with paste, 
pour the mixture in, and bake half an hour. 

TAPIOCA PUDDING. 

A pint and a half of new milk, a tea-cupful of tapioca, 
and two ounces of sugar, to be put together, and boil five 
minutes ; then pour it into a basin ; when cold, add four 
whole eggs, well beaten ; flavor with the essence of lemon, 
or what you please ; put the mixture into a well-buttered 
mould, and steam it for an hour. It is excellent, when 
cold, with preserved fruit. 

CUP PUDDING. 

Half a pound of butter, half a pound of flour, half a 
pound of sugar, half a pound of eggs ; mix the eggs and 



210 SKILFUL housewife's book. 

sugar, then add the flour, and afterward the butter, which 
must first be beaten to a cream ; to be baked in cups, in a 
quick oven, twenty-five minutes. 

POTATO CHEESE-CAKES. 

Half a pound of potatoes, boiled and rubbed through a 
sieve, half a pound of butter, beat to a cream, half a pound 
of white sugar, the yolks of six eggs, twenty drops of th© 
essence of lemon. The eggs should be beaten separate, 
and added the last thing. Line a dish with good paste, 
and pour the mixture in. Bake half an hour 

LEMON CHEESE-CAKES. 

A quarter of a pound of butter, three quarters of a pound 
of sugar, six eggs, the grated rind of two lemons and juice 
of three. Put all these into a pan, over a slow fire, gently 
stirring it, till as thick as a good cream ; then pour it into 
jars, and tie them down close. Keep it in a dry place, 
and it will be good for a year. Line a dish with paste, as 
above. 

MINCE MEAT. 

Four pounds of raisins, four pounds of currants, four 
pounds of apples chopped fine, four pounds of beef suet, 
do., three pounds of beef, do., four ounces of citron, four 
ounces of orange and lemon candied, two nutmegs, two 
ounces of cloves and allspice, half an ounce of cinnamon, 
one pound of white sugar. Mix all well together. 

LEMON CREAM, 

Take the rinds of two lemons, cut them, put them into 
a pint of cold water, let it stand all night, squeeze the 
juice into the water, sweeten to your taste, beat the whites 
of six eggs to a strong froth, put all together into a pan, 
and stir over a very slow fire till warm — not hot enough 
to curdle — stir gently till cold, and put into glasses. It 
should be made several hours previous to being served. 

LEMON ICE. 

For a quart mould, take a pint and half of water, the 
rind of three lemons, and three and a quarter pounds of 



SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 21 1 

loaf sugar; l;oil for ten minutes. When nearly cold, add 
the yolks of eight eggs nnd juice of eighfe lemons, well 
beaten together; mix like ii custard — freeze it in the usual 
manner — it is excellent. Orange ice may be made in the 
same way. 

CUSTARD ICE. 

Make a nice, smooth custard, with the yolks of ten eggi 
to a pint and half of thin cream. Flavor with what you 
please. When half frozen, add some dried fruit, cut in 
small pieces ; mix up, and finish freezing. 

PRESERVING. 

m 

ORANGE MARMALADE, 

Take three dozen Seville oranges, grate the rind off 
eight, peel the remainder, and throw the rinds in cold 
water ; wash them well, and boil them till tender ; divide 
the oranges, and scrape out all the pulp, but be careful not 
to have any of the seeds among it ; cut the rinds in thin 
strips, and add them to the pulp and that which is grated. 
Weigh it, and to every pound of fruit add one pound and 
a quarter of sugar. Boil it quickly for twenty minutes. 

WHOLE STRAWBERRIES. 

Take some of the largest and best kind ; have ready 
some boiling syrup, in a large preserving pan ; put them 
in gently, let them boil five minutes. The next day, strain 
the syrup from them and boil it. and pour it over *hem. 
Continue to do so until the thin syrup has done rising; 
then put them in jars. Tie them down securely. 

SEVILLE ORANGES OR LEMONS IN SYRUP. 

Choose those that are clear and free from spots ; wipe 
them, and let them remain in water a day and night ; boil 
them till tender ; drain them, and make a thin syrup, suf- 
'icient to cover them, in which boil them for a quarter of 
an hour. Repeat this every day, until the syrup is a 
proper thickness. Put them into jars, and tie then) close 
down. 



212 SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 

TO PRESERVE CITRONS. 

They should not be too ripe. Cut the soft part out, and 
let them lie in cold water all night. Boil them very ten- 
der, drain them on a cloth, and to every three pounds of 
citron add four pounds of sugar, two quarts of water, and 
two ounces of ginger; boil them for half an hour. The 
next day, boil them till very clear, take them out, and add 
one pound more sugar, moistened with a little water and 
the juice of five or six lemons ; boil it a few minutes, put 
the citron in jars, pour the syrup over them, and, when 
cold, tie down very close. 

CHERRYJAM. 

Take twelve pounds of good, juicy cherries, stone and 
mash them as much as possible, put them in a pan and lei 
them simmer gently till the juice is nearly dried up. 
Add three pounds of finely powdered sugar and the ker- 
nels ; stir it all well together, and boil till it will drop off 
the spoon. This should be put in saucers or shallow jars. 

TO PRESERVE GREEN GAGES. 

They should be gathered when quite dry, and not too 
ripe. Put them in a preserving pan, with a layer of vine 
leaves under and over ; cover with water, a small piece 
of alum, and the same of saltpetre. Simmer them very 
gently till green and tender ; take them out carefully 
into a pan of cold water, drain them in a cloth, and have 
ready a thin syrup to put them in. Boil the syrup every 
day, adding a little sugar, till of a propter thickness; the 
last day, put the gages in and boil for a few minutes. 

APPLE JELLY. 

Take a peck of nice, juicy apples, pare and core them^ 
put them into a pan with two quarts of water ; boil them 
gently, but not too much ; strain the juice through a bag 
or sieve ; to every pint add three quarters of a pound of 
loaf sugar and the rind of a lemon pared very thin. BoiJ 
it twenty minutes or half an hour. 

ANOTHER. 

Take half a gallon of the greenest apples, pare and core 



SKILFUL housewife's BOOiv. 213 

ihem, put them in a pan with water to cover them, boil 
one hour, strain the juice, and to every pint add three quar 
ters of a pound of sugar, the juice of two lemons, and the 
rind of one. Boil one hour. 

DRIED CHERRIES. 

Stone them, and to every pound of fruit take half a 
pound of sugar ; put the cherries in an earthen pan, a layer 
of fruit and a layer of sugar ; let them stand three days, 
then boil them a few minutes. When cool, take them out 
of the syrup and drain them, spread them thin on hair 
sieves, and dry them in the sun. They should be turned 
every few hours, on clean sieves, till dry. 

RASPBERRY VINEGAR. 

Mix a quart of the best vinegar with two quarts of fine 
red raspberries ; let it stand for nine days, or longer if not 
fermented ; then strain them through a fine sieve, and to 
every pint of liquor add three quarters of a pound of fine 
sugar ; simmer it gently, and finish by boiling quickly for 
twenty minutes. This makes a pleasant drink with cold 
water. 

CAKES. 

One pound of fresh butter, one pound of sugar, two 
pounds of flour, two pounds of currants, three quarters of 
a pound of candied citron, lemon, and orange, a quarter of 
a pound of sweet almonds blanched and chopped, ten eggs, 
one ounce of mixed spice. Melt the butter to a cream, 
add the sugar and spice, and beat for a quarter of an hour. 
Add the yolks of the eggs, two or three at a time ; the 
whites should be beaten to a strong froth, alid worked in 
gradually; then add the fruit and almonds and flour. 
Bake three hours. 

QUEEN- CAKE. 

Fourteen eggs, one pound of fresh butter, one pound of 
flour, one pound of sugar ; the yolks and whites to be beat 
separately ; half a pound of currants or candied peel. 



214 SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 

RICE-CAKE. 

Haifa pound of butter, half a pound of sugar, six eggs, 
a quarter of a pound of flour, a quarter of a pound of rice 
-flour. Melt the butter to a cream, and add your sugar* 
sth* it till it is light, break in six eggs, two at a time, and 
keep stirring your paste all the time; when the eggs are 
worked, add the ground rice and flour. Bake this in a 
hoop, in the same way as a plum-cake. 

THICK GINGERBREAD 

Half a pound of flour, a quarter of a pound of butter 
two ounces of sugar, one pound of molasses, half an ounce 
of ground ginger, a quaJiter of an ounce of saleratus dis- 
solved in a tea-spoonful of warm milk. Rub butter, sugar, 
and ginger well in the flour ; add the molasses and salera- 
tus the last thing. 

GINGERBREAD CAKES. 

A pound and a half of flour, half a pound of moist sugar, 
half a pound of butter, two ounces of ginger — rubbed well 
together, and mixed with three quarters of a pound of 
molasses. 

HONEYCOMB GINGERBREAD. 

Half a pound of flour, half a pound of moist sugar, a 
quarter of a pound of butter, half an ounce of ginger, half 
the peel of one lemon grated, and all the juice. Mix all 
together to a paste, with half a pound of molasses ; make 
it thin enough to spread upon sheet tins rubbed with but- 
ter ; bake it in a moderately hot oven, and watch it all the 
time. When baked, it must be cut upon the tins, with a 
knife, in strips, and roll it around a wafer-stick. It wilJ 
keep good for a month, in a very dry place, and closely 
covered. 

rOUND-CAKE. 

One pound of flour, one pound of butter, one pound of 
sugar, one pound of eggs, half a pound of citron. Beat the 
butter to a cream, then add the sugar and yolks of eggs, a 
few at a time, then the whites. Beat all well together 
stir the flour lightly in, and the citron the last thing. 



SKILFUL HOUSEWIFE'S BOOK. 215 

ALMOND-CAKES. 

One pound of fine Hour, three quarters of a pound of loaf 
sugar sifted, two eggs, half a pound of butter, a quarter ot 
a pound of currants, one ounce of bitter almonds blanche'^ 
and pounded. Mix all well together, and make into small 
cakes. Bake about ten minutes. 

SHREWSBURY CAKES. 

Half a pound of butter, half a pound of flour, three quar- 
ters of a pound of sifted sugar, one egg, a quarter of an 
ounce of carraway seeds. Mix all these ingredients well 
together, make into a paste, and roll out thin, using as 
little flour as possible; cut them out with a round cutter, 
and bake in a hot oven. 

RUSKS. 

Half a pound of sugar, seven eggs, six ounces of flour, 
one ounce of carraway seeds, or not. The eggs should be 
very fresh. Beat the whites to a strong froth, whisk in the 
yolks and powdered sugar and seeds. The flour should be 
stirred gently in with a spoon. Bake in buttered moulds, 
in a warm oven. When cold, cut them in slices, and brown 
them in a hot oven, first on one side, then on the other. 

MACAROONS. 

One pound of sweet almonds, a pound and a quarter of 
sugar sifted, six whites of eggs, and the rasping of two 
lemons. Pound the almonds very fine with the whites of 
eggs ; when quite smooth, add the sugar and lemon rasp- 
ings ; have some wafer-paper on flat baking-sheets, and 
place the paste in small lumps on it. Bake them in a 
moderately-heated oven. When cold, cut the paper round 
them. They should be kept in a dry place. 

SPONGE-CAKE. 

Twelve eggs, twelve ounces of flour, one pound of sugar, 
and the raspings of two lemons. Beat the yolks, lemon, 
and sugar well together for twenty minutes, beat the whitea 
to a strong froth, and pour the batter into it, then add tha 
flour very lightly. 



216 SKILFUL housewife's BOOK. 

A VERY NICE CAKE. 

Six eggs, half the whites, two ounces of sugar sifted, a 
quarter of a pound of flour, a quarter of an ounce of sweet 
and half an ounce of bitter almonds pounded fine. The 
sugar, yolks of eggs, and almonds to be well mixed, the 
whites beaten separately, and the flour added the last thmg. 
To be baked in a quick oven, half an hour. 

TEA-CAKES. 

Two pounds of flour, a quarter of a pound of butter 
rubbed in the flour, one pint of milk, one egg, a tea-spoon- 
ful of sugar, and a little yeast — made into a light dough, 
and set to rise. This is sufficient for twelve large cakes. 

CURRY- POWDER. 

Six ounces of pale-colored turmeric, five ounces of black 
pepper, 13 ounces of coriander seed, three ounces of cum- 
min seed, two ounces of fenugreek seed, one ounce of Cay- 
enne pepper. All these ingredients are to be ground fine 
separatel}^ and well mixed. 

^ TOMAKECURRY. 

Take a fowl, or any white meat, cut it up in joints or 
small pieces, fry them a light brown in a little butter, and 
put them on a plate ; have ready three middling-sized 
onions cut fine, and fry them also ; then add a table-spoon- 
ful and a half of the curry-powder, and two of flour. Mix 
it smooth, and moisten with a pint of weak broth or water; 
peel and coie a good-sized apple, and cut it in small pieces, 
and add to the sauce ; put the meat in and let it stew 
gently for an hour. Before serving, skim very carefully 
and strain the sauce. Plain boiled rice should be served 
with it. 

TO PICKLE MUSHROOMS. 

Wipe them carefully, put them in an earthen vessel, and 
sprinkle salt over them ; let them stand for eight hours; 
put them in a pan and strain the liquor to them ; let them 
boil till nearly dry ; take them out and lay between clean 
cloths, and boil some good vinegar with pepper and mace; 
put them in, and give them a boil up ; put them into 
glass bottles, and cork tight. 



THE 



HASTY-PUDDING 



CANTO I. 



YE Alps audacious, thro' the heavens that rise. 
To cramp the day and hide me from the skiei ; 
Ye Gallic flags that o'er their heights unfurl'd. 
Bear death to kings, and freedom to the world, 
I sing not you. A softer theme I choose, 
A virgin theme, unconscious of the Muse, 
But fruitful, rich, well suited to inspire 
The purest frenzy of poetic fire. 

Despise it not, ye Bards to terror steel'd. 
Who hurl'd your thunders round the epic field; 
Nor ye who strain your midnight throats to sing 
Joys that the vineyard and the still-house bring; 
Or en some distant fair your notes employ. 
And speak of raptures that you ne'er enjoy. 
T sing the sweets I know, the charms I feel, 
My morning incense, and my evening meal, 
The sweets of Hasty-Pudjding. Come, dear bowl. 
Glide o'er my palate, and inspire my soul. 
The milk beside thee, smoking from the kine. 
Its substance mingl'd, married it with thine, 
Shall cool and temper thy superior heat. 
And save the pains of blowing while I eat. 

Oh ! could the smooth, the emblematic song 
Flow like the genial juices o'er my tongue, 
Could those mild morsels in numbers chime, 
And as they roll in substance, roll in rhyme. 
No more thy awkward unpoetic name. 
Should shun the Muse, or prejudice thy fame 



HASTY- PUDDING. 

But, rising grateful to th' accustom'd ear, 

All bards should catch it, and all realms revere ! 

Assist me first with pious toil to trace, 
Thro' wrecks of time thy lineage and thy race ; 
Declare what lovely squaw, in days of yore, 
(Ere great Columbus sought thy native shore,) 
First gave thee to the world ; her works of fame 
Have liv'd indeed, but liv'd without a name. 
Some tawny Ceres, goddess of her days. 
First learn'd with stones to crack the well-dry'd maiza 
Thro' the rough sieve to shake the golden show'r, 
In boiling water stir the yellow flour — 
The yellow flour, bestrew'd and stir'd with haste. 
Swells in the flood and thickens to a paste. 
Then puffs and wallops, rises to ti>e bnm, 
Drinks the dry knobs that on the surface swim ; 
The knobs at last the busy ladle breaks. 
And the whole mass its true consistence takes 

Could but her sacred name, unknown so long. 
Rise like her labours, to the son of song. 
To her, to them, I'd consecrate my lays, 
4.nd blow her pudding with the breath of praise 
If 'twas Oello, whom I sang before, 
I here ascribe her one great virtue more. 
Nor thro' the rich Peruvian realms alone 
The fame of Sol's sweet daughter should be known 
But o'er the world's wide climes should live secure. 
Far as his rays extend, as long as they endure. 

Dear Hasty-Pudding, what unpromis'd joy 
Expands my heart, to meet thee in Savoy ! 
Doom'd o'er the world thro' devious paths to roam, 
Each clime my country, and each house my home. 
My soul is sooth'd, my cares have found an end, 
I greet my long-lost, unforgotten friend. 

For thee thro' Paris, that corrupted town. 
How long in vain I wander'd up and down. 
Where shameless Bacchus, with his drenching hoa { 
Cold from his cave, usurps the morning board 
London is lost in smoke and steep'd in tea ; 
No Yankee there can lisp the name of thee ; 



HASTY-PUDDING O 

The uncouth word, a libel on the town, 
Would call a proclamation from the crown.* 
From climes oblique, that fear the sun's full rays, 
Chill'd in their fogs, exclude the gen'rous maize ; 
A grain whose rich luxuriant growth requires 
Short gentle showers, and bright etherial fires. 

But here, tho' distant from our native shore, 
With mutual glee we meet and laugh once more 
The same ! I know thee by that yellow face. 
That strong complexion of true Indian race. 
Which time can never change, nor soil impair. 
Nor Alpine snows, nor Turkey's morbid air; 
For endless years, thro' every mild domain, 
Where grows the maize, there thou art sure to reign 

But man, more fickle, the bold license claimB, 
In different realms to give thee different names. 
Thee the soft nations round the warm Levant 
Polenta call, the French, of course, Polente ; 
Ev'n in thy native regions, how I blush 
To hear the Pensylvanians call thee Musk! 
On Hudson's banks, while men of Belgic spawn 
Insult and eat thee by the name Swppawn. 
All spurious appellations, void of truth j 
I've better known thee from my earliest youth. 
Thy name is Hasty-Pudding / thus our sires 
Were wont to greet thee fuming from their fires ; 
And while they argu'd in thy just defence 
With logic clear, they thus explain'd the sense : — 
" In haste the boiling caldron o'er the blaze, 
"Receives and cooks the ready-powder'd maize; 
*'In haste 'tis serv'd and then in equal haste, 
" With cooling milk, we make the sweet repast. 
" No carving to be done, no knife to grate 
'• The tender ear, and wound the stony plate ; 
** But the smooth spoon, just fitted to the lip, 
" And taught with art the yielding mass to dip, 
** By frequent journeys to the bowl well stor'd 
" Performs the hasty honours of the board." 
Such is thy name, significant and clear, 
A name, a sound to every Yankee dear, 

♦ A certain king, at the time when this was written, was publishing proclam* 
tions to prevent American piinciples from being propagated in his country. 



HASTY-BUDDING. 



But most to me, whose heart and palate chaste 
Preserve my pure hereditary taste. 

There are who strive to stamp with disrepute 
The luscious food, because it feeds the brute ; 
In tropes of high-strain'd wit, while gaudy prigg 
Compare thy nursling man to pamper'd pigs ; 
With sovereign scorn I treat the vulgar jest, 
Nor fear to share thy bounties with the beast. 
What tho' the gen'rous cow gives me to quaflf 
The milk nutritious ; am I then a calf ? 
Or can the genius of the noisy swine, 
Tho' nursed on pudding, thence lay claim to mine I 
Sure the sweet song, I fashion to thy praise, 
Runs more melodious than the notes they raise. 

My song resounding in its grateful glee. 
No merit claims ; I praise myself in thee. 
My father lov'd thee thro' his length of days ! 
For thee his fields were shaded o'er with maize ; 
From thee what health, what vigour he possess'd. 
Ten sturdy freemen sprung from him attest ; 
Thy constellation rul'd my natal morn. 
And all my bones were made of Indian corn. 
Delicious grain ! whatever form it take, 
To roast or boil, to smother or to bake, 
In every dish 'tis welcome still to me. 
But most, my Hasty-Pudding, most in thee. 

Let the green succotash with thee contend^ 
Let beans and corn their sweetest juices blend. 
Let butter drench them in its yellow tide. 
And a long slice of bacon grace their side ; 
Not all the plate, how fam'd soe'er it be, 
Can please my palate like a bowl of thee. 

Some talk of Hoe-cake, fair Virginia's pride. 
Rich Johnny-cake this mouth has often try'd ; 
Both please me well, their virtues much the same , 
Alike their fabric as allied their fame. 
Except in dear New England, where the last 
Receives a dash of pumpkin in the paste, 
To give it sweetness and improve the taste. 
But place them all before me, smoking hot, 
The big round dumpling rolUng from the pot ; 



t 



HASTY-PUDDING. 

The pudding of the bag, whose quiv'ring breast. 
With suet lin'd, leads on the Yankee feast ; 
The Charlotte brown, within whose crusty sides 
A belly soft the pulpy apple hides; 
The yellow bread, whose lace like amber glows, 
And all of Indian that the bake-pan knows— 
You tempt me not — my fav'rite greets my eyes, 
To that lov'd bowl my spoon by instinct flies. 



CANTO It. 

To mix the food by vicious rules of art, 
To kill the stomach and to sink the heart. 
To make mankind, to social virtue sour, 
Cram o'er each dish, and be what they devour, 
From this kitchen Muse first ffam'd her book, 
Commanding sweets to stream from every cook ; 
Children no more their antic gambols tried, 
And friends to physic wonder'd why they died. 
Not so the Yankee — his abundant feast, 
With simples furnish'd, and with plainness dress'd, 
A numerous offspring gathers round the board, 
And cheers alike the servant and the lord; 
Whose well-bought hunger prompts the joyous taste 
And health attends them from the short repast. 

While the full pail rewards the milk-maid's toil. 
The mother sees the morning caldron boil ; 
To stir the pudding next demands their care. 
To spread the table aid the bowls prepare ; 
To feed the children, 4s their portions coo., 
And comb their heads, and send them off to school. 

Yet may the simplest dish, some rules impart, 
For nature scorns not all the aids of art. 
E'en Hasty-Pudding, purest of all food, 
May still be bad, indifferent, or good, 
As sage experience the short process guides. 
Or want of skill, or want of care presides, 
Whoer'er would form it on the surest plan, 
To rear the child and long sustain the man ; 



lASTY-PUDDING. 

To shield the morals while it mends the size, 
And all the poAvers of every food supplies — 
Attend the lessons that the Muse shall bring, 
Suspend your spoons, and listen while I sing. 

But since, man ! thy life and health demanc 
Not food alone, but labour from thy hand, 
First in the field, beneath the sun's strong cays, 
Ask of thy mother, earth the needful maize ; 
She loves the race that courts her yielding soil, 
And gives her bounties to the sons of toil 

- When now the ox obedient to thy call, 
Repays the loan that fill'd the winter stall, 
Pursue his traces o'er the furrow'd plain, 
And plant in measur'd hills the golden grain. 
But when the tender germ begins to shoot, 
And the green spire declares the sprouting root. 
Then guard your nursling from each greedy foe, 
Th' insidious worm, the all-devouring crow. 
A little ashes, sprinkled round the spire, 
Soon steep'd in rain, will bid the worm retire ; 
The feather'd robber with his hungry maw 
Swift flies the field before your man of straw, 
A frightful image, such as school-boys bring 
When met to burn the Pope, or hang the King. 

Thrice in the season, thro' each verdant row 
Wield the strong plough-share and the faithful hoe — 
The faithful hoe, a double task that takes, 
To till the summer corn., and roast the winter cakes. 

Slow springs the blade, while check'd by chilling rains, 
Ere yet the sun the seat of Cancer gains ; 
But when his fiercest fires emblaze the land. 
Then start the juices, then the roots expand ; 
Then, like a column of Corinthian mould. 
The stalk struts upward, and the leaves unfold ; 
The bushy branches all the ridges fill, 
Entwine their arms, and kiss from hill to hill. 
Here cease to vex them, all your cares are done ; 
Leave the last labours to the parent sun ; 
Beneath his genial smiles the well-dress'd fif Id, 
W hen autumn calls, a plenteous crop shall yield 



HASTY-PUDDING. 

Now the strong foliage bears the standards high, 
And shoots the tall top-gallants to the sky ; 
The suckling ears their silky fringes bend, 
And pregnant grown, their swelling coats distend, 
The loaded stalk, while still the burthen grows, 
O'erhangs the space that runs between the rows ; 
High as a hop-field waves the silent grove, 
A safe retreat for little thefts of love. 
When the pledg'd roasting-ears invite the maid, 
To meet her swain beneath the new-form'd shade, 
His gen'rous hand unloads the cumbrous hill. 
And the green spoils her ready basket fill; 
Small compensation for the two-fold bliss, 
The promis'd wedding and the present kiss. 

Slight depredations these ; but now the moon 
Calls from his hollow tree the sly racoon; 
And while by night he bears his prize away. 
The bolder squirrel labours thro' the day. 
Both thieves alike, but provident of time, 
A virtue, rare, that almost hides their crime. 
Then let them steal the little stores they can. 
And fill their gran'ries from the toils of man ; 
We've one advantage where they take no part, — 
With all their wiles they ne'er have found the art 
To boil the Hasty-Pudding ; here we shine 
Superior far to tenants of the pine ; 
This envied boon to man shall still belong, 
Unshar'd by them in substance or in song. 

At last the closing season browns the plain. 
And ripe October gathers in the grain ; 
Deep-loaded carts the spacious corn-house fill. 
The sack distended marches to the mill ; 
The lab'ring mill beneath the burden groans, 
And show'rs the future pudding from the stones ; 
Till the glad house-wife greets the powder'd gold. 
And the new crop exterminates the r d. 



CANTO III. 

The days grow short ; but tho' the falling sun 
To the glad swain proclaims his day's work done, 
1* 



10 HASTY-PUDDING. 

Night's pleasing shades his various tasks prolong. 
And yield new subjects to mr various song 
For nov*% the corn-house fill'd, the harvest home, 
Th' invited neighbours to the Husking come; 
A frolic scene, where work, and mirth, and play, 
Unite their charms, to chase the hours away. 

Where the huge heap lies centr'd in the hall. 
The lamp suspended from the cheerful wall, 
Brown corn-fed nymphs, and strong hard-handed beaux 
Alternate rang'd, extend in circling rows, 
Assume their seats, the solid mass attack ; 
The dry husks rustle, and the corn-cobs crack ; 
The song, the laugh, alternate notes resound, 
And the sweet cider tripsin silence round. 

The laws of husking ev'ry wight can tell ; 
And sure no laws he ever keeps so well ; 
For each red ear a gen'ral kiss he gains. 
With each smut ear she smuts the luckless swains ; 
But when to some sweet maid a prize is cast. 
Red as her lips, and taper as her waist, 
She walks around, and culls one favour'd beau. 
Who leaps, the luscious tribute to bestow. 
Various the sport, as are the wits and brains 
Of well-pleas'd lasses and contending swains; 
Till the vast mound of corn is swept away. 
And he that gets the last ear, wins the day. 

Meanwhile the house-wife urges all her care, 

The well-earned feast to hasten and prepare. 

The sifted meal already waits her hand, 

The milk is strain'd, the bowls in order stand, 

The fire flames high ; and, as a pool (that takes 

The head-long stream that o'er the mill-dam breaks) 

Foams, roars and rages with incessant toils, 

So the vex'd caldron rages, roars, and boils. 

First, with clean salt she seasons well the food. 
Then stews the flour and thickens all the flood. 
Long o'er the sim'ring fire she lets it stand ; 
To stir it well demands a stronger hand ; 
The husband takes his turn ; and round and round 
The ladle flies ; at last the toil is crown'd ; 
When to the board the thronging huskers pour. 
And take their seats as at the corn before. 



HASTY-PUDDING. 1* 

I leave them to their feast. There still belong 
More copious matters to my faithful song. 
For rules there are, tho' ne'er unfolded yet, 
Nice rules and wise, how pudding should be ate. 

Some with molasses line the luscious treat, 
And mix, like bards, the useful with the sweet. 
A wholesome dish, and well deserving praise, 
A great resource in those bleak wintry days, 
When the chill'd earth ^ics buried deep in snow. 
And raging Boreas drives the shiv'ring cow. 

Blest cow ! thy praise shall still my notes employ. 
Great source of health, the only source of joy; 
How oft thy teats these pious hands have press'd ! 
How oft thy bounties prove my only feast ! 
How oft I've fed thee with my fav'rite grain ! 
And roar'd, like thee, to find thy children slain ! 

Ye swains who know her various worth to prize. 

Ah ! house her well from winter's angry skies. 
Potatoes, pumpkins, should her sadness cheer. 
Corn from your crib, and mashes from your beer; 
When spring returns she'll well acquit the loan, 
And nurse at once your infants and her own. 

Milk, then, with pudding, I should always choose; 
To this in future I confine my Muse, 
Till she in haste some future hints unfold, 
Well for the young, nor useless to the old. 
First in your bowl the milk abundant take, 
Then drop with care along the silver lake 
Your flakes of pudding ; these at first will hide 
Their little bulk beneath the swelling tide ; 
But when their growing mass no more can sink ; 
When the soft island looms above the brink, 
Then check your hand ; you've got the portion's due. 
So taught our sires and what they taught is true. 

There is a choice in spoons. Tho' small appear 
The nice distinction, yet to me 'tis clear, 
The deep bowl'd Gallic spoon, contriv'd to scoop 
In ample draughts the thin diluted soup, 
Performs not well in those substantial things, 
Whose mass adhesive to the metal clings; 



HASTY-PUDDING. 

Where the strong labial muscles must embrace, 
The gentle curve, and sweep the hollow space. 
With ease to enter and discharge the freight, 
A bowl less concave but still more dilate. 
Becomes the pudding best. The shape, the size, 
A secret rests unknown to vulgar eyes; 
Experienc'd feeders can alone impart 
A rule so much above the lore of art. 
These tuneful lips, that thousand spoons have triedi 
With just precision could the point decide, 
The' not in song ; the muse but poorly shines 
In cones and cubes, and geometric lines. 
Yet the true form, as near as she can tell, 
Is that small section of a goose egg-shell. 
Which in two equal portions shall divide 
The distance from the centre to the side. 

Fear not to slaver; 'tis no deadly sin, 
Like the free Frenchman, from your joyous chill 
Suspend the ready napkin ; or, like me. 
Poise with one hand your bowl upon your kne2 ; 
Just in the zenith your wise head project. 
Your full spoon, rising in a line direct, 
Bold as a bucket, heeds no drops that faU, 
The wide-mouth'd bowl will surely catc \ then OL 



MAIZE OR INDIAN CORN. 



INDIAN CORN. 



Synonymes. 
Zea mays, Of Botanists. 

Maize, Indian Corn, Britain and ANUL0-AMSAiti4 

Mais, Bl^ d'Indie,Bl^ ) j. 

deTurquie, j France. 

Maiz, Trigo de Indias, Spain. 

Grano d'India, Grano 1 

Turco, i Italy. 

Grano Siciliano, ) 

Maiz, Milho da India, ) -r, t> 

Milho grande, j Portugal and Brazil. 

Mais, Tiirkischer Korn, Germany. 

Mays, Turksch Koorn, Holland. 

Turkish Hvede, Sweeden and Denmark. 

Tureskoichljeb, Russia. 

Derivations. — The geaeric name Zea is derived from the Greek zao, to liv^ 
from the nutritive qualities of this, or some other kind of corn formerly culti- 
rated in Greece or on the adjacent Archipelago. The word mays, and all its 
derivatives, according to Clavigero; have been derived from the denomination of 
this vegetable in the Haitina language, or that of Hispaniola; but by others, it 
is thought to come from the Lettish and L\voinc'mai/se, which signifies bread 
in those languages. The European names Ble d' Indie, Trigo de Indias^ etc., 
have been so called on account of this grain having first been brought by Colum- 
bus from America, which was known at that time by the name of the " Indies ;" 
and those names signifying " Turkish Corn." took their origin from the circum- 
stance that the cultivation of this plant spread from Turkey to the neighbouring 
countries, and consequently led some writers to believe that it first came from 
the £ast. 

Description. 

The fruitfal maize, in verdant vistas rear'd, 

Its spire majestic, to the pla3'ful breeze, 

Spreading its loosely- waving panicles, while low 

The purple anthers bending o'er to kiss 

The silken, tassel'd styles, delight the eye 

Of watchful Ceres. . Traits of the Aborigines, 

MAIZE, OR Indian Corn, consists of several varieties 
which are thought to owe their distinctive charac- 
ters to the accidental modifications of climate, soil, and 



16 HLMOIR O'l 

cul.ure, rather than to any original iifi 'rences. The 
plant is described by botanists, as a strong, reedy, 
jointed stalk, provided with larg^ alternate leaves, 
almost like flags, springing from evjry joint. The top 
produces a bunch of male flowers, of various colours, 
which is called the tassel. Each plaiit bears, likewise, 
one or more spikes or ears., seldom s > f 'w as one, and 
rareiy more than four or five, the ni'-t usual number 
being three ; as many as seven have been seen occa- 
sionally on one stalk. These ears proceed from the 
stalk at various distances from the ground, and are 
closely enveloped by several thin leaves, forming a 
sheath, whi-ch is called the husk. The ears consist of a 
cylindrical substance, of the nature of a pith, which is 
called the coh^ over the entire surface of which the 
seeds are rancred, and fixed in ei^ht or more straight 
rows, each row having generally as many as thirty or 
more seeds. The eyes, or germs of the seeds, are in 
nearly radial lines from the centre of the cylinder ; from 
these eyes proceed individual filaments of a silky ap- 
pearance, and of a brifrht-sreen colour ; the airorresate of 
these hang out from the point of the husk, in a thick 
cluster, and in this state are called the silk. It is the 
office of these filaments, which are the stigmata, to 
receive the farina, which drops from the flowers on the 
top or tassel, and without which the ears would pro- 
duce no seed, — a fact which has been established by 
cutting off the top previous to the development of its 
flowers, when the ears proved wholly barren. So soon 
as their office has been thus performed, both the tassel 
and the silk dry up, and put on a withered appearance. 

The grains of maize are of different colours, the pre- 
vailing hue being yellow of various shades, sometimes 
approaching to white, and at other times deepening to 
red. Some are of a deep chocolate-colour, others green- 
ish or olive-coloured, and even the same ears will some- 
times contain grains of different colours. 

Geography and History. — Indian Corn, when due 
rep;ard is paid to the selection of varieties, may be 
accounted as a sure crop, in almosi every portion of the 



INDIAN CORN. 17 

ftabitable globs, between the forty-third degree of north 
latitude, and a corresponding parallel south. Its prin- 
ciple culture is confined to the United States, Mexico, 
the West Indies, and most of the states of South 
America. It is also cultivated with success in Spain, 
Portugal, Lombardy, and may be grown in southern 
Europe generally. It is likewise found to thrive iu 
India, China, Japan, Australia, the Sandwich Islands, 
as well as in the groups of the Azores, the Madeiras, 
Canaries, and numerous other ocean isles 

Roulin, Humboldt, Bonpland, and others, have 
noticed this plant in its indigenous state in America, 
and hence have concluded that it was first derived from 
this country. Mathioli, Cie^a, Zeri, and Inca Garci- 
la.sso, have also confirmed this opinion. Fuchs, on the 
contrary, very early maintained that it came from the 
East. Michaud, Daru, and Bonafous, state that it was 
known in Asia Minor before the discovery of America ; 
and Crawford, in his " History of the Indian Archi- 
pelago," tells us that maize was cultivated by the in- 
habitants of these islands, under the name of djagoung, 
long before that period. In the " Natural History of 
China," composed by Li-Chi Tchin, towards the middle 
of the XVlth century, a rude figure is given of the 
Zea mays, under the title of la-chou-cha ; and Rifaud, 
in his " Voyagre en Egypte, &c., from 1805 to 1807," 
observes, that he discovered this grain in a subterranean 
excavation in a remarkably good state of preservation. 
M. Virey, however, in the " Journal de Pharmacie," 
refutes these statements, by showing that these authors 
have mistaken the Indian millet ( Sorghum vulgare) for 
maize, and that the grain found by Rifaud, was the 
Sorghum bicolor, which, according to Delile, is a native 
of Egypt. Regmir and Gregory attempt to present 
fresh arguments in favour of the Eastern origin of this 
plant. Among them is the name by which it has long 
been known in Europe, BU de Turquie ; and varieties 
of it, they state, have been brought from the Isle of 
France, or from China. Moreau de Jonnes, on the 
contrary, has more recently maintained in a memoir 
9 



18 MtMOlK 0£5 

read bufore the Academy of Sciences, at Paris, that iti 
origin was in America. The name BU de Tarquie^ no 
more proves it to be of Turkish origin, than the name 
of the English Horse Bean proves that that plant . 
originally grew wild in Britain. The general cultiva-. 
tion of maize, in southern Europe, and the production 
of some new varieties, proves nothing with regard to 
the origin of the species. Nor, where it occurs in the 
East, there is no proof of its having been carried there 
previously to the discovery of America. 

In favour of the American origin of maize, is the fact 
that it was found in a state of cultivation in most of 
the places where the first navigators landed. Colum- 
bus discovered it on the Island of Cuba, and other 
points, where he touched on his first voyage to America, 
Vasco Nunez, in Guiana, Navaez and Sottus, in 
Florida, and Gongalo Ximines, in New Granada, — the 
latter of whom, says, " The principal food of the natives 
' was Maiz and Cassave^ which first grows on stalks 

* of the size of canes, bearincr; very large and weighty 
' spikes or ears, each generally yielding seven hundred 

* grains — a bushel of which, when planted in warm, 
' moist land, frequently produces three hundred fold. 

* The maize is distinguished into a coarser and a finer 
' sort, which last is called Moroche^ the leaves and 
' stalks affording wholesome provender for horses, and 

* the grains or kernels, bread for the inhabitants, who 
' make it several ways ; for sometimes they boil the 
' corn in water, and at other times, parch it in ashes, 

* or grind it into flour, which, when kneaded into 
'• dough, they make into cakes, biscuits, etc. More- 
' over, maize steeped in water, boiled, and afterwards 

* fermented, makes a very strong liquor.'' 

All the early historians, both of North and South 
America, give the strongest testimony that this grain 
is of American origin, and speak of it as having consti- 
tuted a great part of the food of the Indians from time , 
immemorial. I 

Inca Garcilasso de la Voga, in treating of the pro- 
ducts of Peru, says, " Of the fruits that grow above 



INDIAN CORN. l9 

* ground, the chief and principal, is that grain which 
^ the people jf Mexico and Barlovento call Mayz, and 

* those of Peru, Cara, being the only bread they use. 
' And this is of two sorts, one called Muruchu^ which 

* is hard, and the other Capia, which is tender and 

* fine, and is eaten as bread, either boiled, baked, or 
' parched, over the fire. The hard kind is that which 
'hasbeen brought to Spain, but not the fine and tender 
*sort." The corn of the Incas, he says, was ground by 

women, between two broad stones in the form of a half 
moon, from the flour of which, they made a kind of 
hasty-pudding, called Api, a great dish among them, 
esteemed as high feeding, but was not common at every 
meal. He mentions another kind of bread, made of 
maize, called Cara, upon which he was nourished for 
nine or ten years. This consisted of three sorts, 
namely, Cancii^ used only for sacrifice ; Haminta^ for 
feasts and great entertainments ; and Tanta or bread 
of common use. Boiled cara they called Mutij which 
is also the name of boiled corn. The virgins or wives 
of the Sun, were employed in the evening in kneading 
great quantities of dough, which they formed into 
small round cakes that were eaten by the Indians only 
at the feasts of Raymi and Citua ; for, at other times, 
they never eat their maize kneaded into bread, nor did 
they eat it at their meals, with the exception of two or 
three mouthfuls at the beginning. Their physicians 
prescribed no other diet to their sick than what was 
inade of maize. They also made plasters or poultices 
of it, which they applied for the relief of aches, colics, 
and other pains. Of the flour of maize, mixed with 
water, the Indians brewed their common beverage, 
which, by a certain process, they were able to convert 
into an excellent vinegar. Of the stalks, before the 
maize was ripe, they made a kind of honey, and some, 
who loved to be drunk, lay their corn steeping in 
water, until germination took place, and then, after 
grinding, boiled it in the same water, drawed it ofl', and 
kept it until stale. This was the strongest drink the 
Peruvians had, which was called, in their language , 



iiO MEMOIR ON 

Vinnapu, and by some of the neighbouring tribes, Sora 
From its intoxicating effects, its use was prohibited by 
the Incas, who made it a penal offence with all who 
drank to excess. 

Francisco Saverio Clavigero, in describing the grain 
of Mexico, says, " The chief, the most useful, and most 
*' common, was the maize, called by the Indians Tluolli, 
^' of which there are several varieties, differing in size, 
" colour, weight, and taste. There is the large and the 
*' small sort, the white, the yellow, the blue, and the 
^' black." 

Captain John Smith, in his account of the Indians 
of Virginia, says, " The greatest labour they take, is 
in planting their corne, for the country naturally is 
overgrowne with wood. To prepare the ground, they 
bruise the barke of the trees neare the root, then doe 
they scortch the roots with fire that they grow no 
more. The next yeare with a crooked peece of wood 
they beat vp the weeds by the rootes, and in that 
mould they plant their corne. Their manner is this. 
They make a hole in the earth with a sticke, and into 
it they put foure graines of wheate (maize), and two 
of beanes. These holes they make foure foote one 
from another. Their women and children do con- 
tinually keepe it with weeding, and when it is growne 
middle high, they hill it about like a hop-yard. In 
Aprill they begin to plant, but their chiefe planta- 
tion is in May, and so they continue till the midst 
of lune. What they plant in Aprill, they reape in 
August : for May in Septe'mber ; for lune in Octo- 
ber. Every stalke of their corne commonly beareth 
two eares, some three, seldome any foure, many but 
one, and some none. Every eare ordinarily hath 
betwixt 200 and 500 graines. The stalke being 
greene hath a sweet iuice in it, somewhat like sugar- 
cane, which is the cause that when they gather their 
corne greene, they sucke the stalkes ; for as we gather 
greene pease, so doe they their corne, being greene, 
which excelleth their old. * * * * * Their corne 
they rost in the eare greene, and bruising it in morter 



im>ia:- corn. ■ 3J 

" of wood with a polt, lap it inrowles in tlio leaues of 
" tlieir corne, and so bojio it for a dainti'^ They also 
" res9ru3 that corne late planted that will not ripe, by 
" roasting it in hot ashes, the heat thereof drying it. 
" In winter they esteenie it being boyled with beanes 
" for a rare dish, they call Pausarowmena. Their old 
" wheat (maize) they first steepe a night in hot water, 
" in the morning pounding it in a morter. They vse a 
" small basket for their temmes (sieve), then pound 
" againe the great, and so separating by dashing their 
*' hand in the basket, receiue the flower in a platter made 
" of wood, scraped to that forme with burning and 
" shels. Tempering this flower with water, they make 
" it either in cakes, covering them with ashes till they 
" be baked, and then washing them in faire water, they 
'^ drie presently with their owne heat : or else boyle 
" them in water, eating the broth with the bread which 
" they call Ponap. The groutcs and peeces of the 
" cornes remaining, by fanning in' a platter or in the 
" wind, away, the branno they boyle 3 or 4 houres with 
' water, which is an ordinary food they call Vstata- 
" hamen. But some more thriftie then cleanly, doe 
" burno the core (cob) of the eare to powder, which 
" they call Pungnough., mingling that in their meale, 
*■ but it never tasted well in bread, nor broth." 

Mr. Schoolcraft, in his late Report, says, that it is 
conceded on all hands, that this is a tropical, or at least, 
a southern plant. He remarks, that it was not known 
in Europe before the discovery of this country, and 
that we learned the mode of cultivation from the 
Indians, and not they from us. It was cultivated by 
the Iroquois in fields sufficiently large to entitle 
them to the name of agriculturists. It was un- 
doubtedly highly prized by them, as an essential 
article of support, as Mr. Schoolcraft states that the 
warriors of the Six Nations were in the habit of under- 
taking journeys of thousands of milefi in extent, carry- 
ing no other food than a little meal from parched and 
pounded corn, relying on the forest for meat. One 
tablespoonfui of this m<»^l, nixed with a little sugar 



22 MEMOIR ON 

and water, will sustain a warrio^ f-^i t'^'ont T-foi \ Koois 
without meat. 

In further proof of the American origin of maize, i' 
may be stated, that it is still found in an indigenous 
state from the Rocky Mountains, in North America 
to the humid forests of Paraguay ; where, instead ol 
having each gra^n naked, as is always the case afte.^ 
long cultivation, they are completely covered with 
glumes or husks. Although there has been much writ- 
ten upon the Eastern origin of this grain, it did not 
grow in that part of India watered by the Indus, at the 
time of Alexander the Great's expedition, as it is not 
mentioned by Nearchus, the commander of the fleet, 
among the productions of that country. It is not 
noticed by Arrian, Diodorus, or Columella ; and even 
60 late as the year 1471, Joan. Cuba, in his " Ortus 
Sanitatis,'' a very curious treatise on plants, trees, ani- 
mals, stones, &c., does not make the least mention of it. 
Neither has it ever been found in any ancient tumulus, 
sarcophagus, or pyramid ; nor has it ever been repre 
sented in any ancient painting, sculpture, or work of 
art, except in America ' But in this country, according 
to Garcilasso, the palace gardens of the Jncas in Peru 
were ornamented with images of gold and silver, of all 
manner of beasts, birds, trees, flowers, and fruit. Soini 
of the trees. appeared in blossom, some with their fruit 
partially or fully grown, and in others it appeared quit( 
ripe, according to the several seasons of the year 
They also imitated the maize, with all its grains, spikes 
stalks, '^^nd leaves ; and in one instance, in the " Gar 
den 0^ Gold and Silver," there was an entire connfield> 
of considerable size, represented with the corn in it? 
exact and natural shape. 

The introduction of maize into Europe, probabb 
dates back to the time soon after Columbus discovered 
America ; but little attention appears to have been paic? 
there, either to its culture or use, until toward ihe 
close of the last century. An amusing, and in many 
respects, an instructive work, was published some years 
since, by William Cobbet', upon the merits of Indiaa 



INDIAN CORN. 23 

corn, whose sanguine wishes upon the subject of its 
introduction as a field crop into Eno-land, led him 
farther than most people have been inclined to accom- 
pany him. A cotemporary writer remarks that, " Cob- 
bett was corn-mad at one time. He saw too soon by 
twenty years, and depended on cultivation, rather than 
importation. He wrote about Indian corn, planted 
Indian corn, raised Indian corn, ate Indian corn, made 
paper of Indian corn husks, asd printed a book from 
the Indian corn paper." There is to be seen in this 
work a very minute and interesting account of the 
various manipulations which must be attended to by 
the maize-grower before his grain is ready for sale, as 
well as very particular directions for turning the pro- 
duce to the best and most profitable account in domestic 
economy. 

The most important feature, perhaps, in the history 
of maize, is its late introduction from the United States 
into Great Britain and Ireland, as a cheap and nutri- 
tious article of human food. For this partriotic and 
philanthropic act, these two nations are highly in- 
debted to the simultaneous exertions of our friend and 
countrymen, Henry Coleman, Esquire, who has been 
engaged for several years in making an agricultural 
tour in Europe, and Dr. John S. Bartlett, late of the 
British army, the latter of whom, addressed a letter on 
the subject, in May, 1842, to Lord Ashburton, in which 
he arrives at the following deductions : — 

1st. That the labouring classes and the poor of 
Great Britain require a cheaper article of food than 
wheaten bread. 

2nd. That although wheat contains a larger portion 
of gluten or the nutritive ingredient, bulk is necessary, 
not only to satisfy the craving of hunger, but to pro- 
mote digestion by the " stimulus of distension," which 
bulk alone can give. 

3rd. That the craving of hunger being removed or 
alleviated by the quantity taken, the mind is more at 
ease ; the mental irritability consequent upon hunger 
is assuaged, and man goes to his labour with cheer 



U-i MEMOIR ON 

fulness and vivacity, becoming a more peaceful citizen 
and perhaps a better man. 

4th. That maize possesses a great superiority over 
rye, barley, oatmeal, or potatoes — not that it contains 
a greater quantity of gluten, but that its constituent 
parts aro better proportioned, and consequently make 
a better article of food. 

5th That, admitted into England duty free, it 
would be a cheaper article of food than any of those 
above named, besides being vastly superior to them in 
nutritive and healthful properties. 

6th. That it can be obtained in any quantities from 
all parts of the United States, and particularly from the 
middle and southern states, on the Atlantic sea-board 
— as New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, 
Virginia, and North Carolina, whose proximity to the 
sea and ports of shipment, give them great advantages 
by saving inland conveyance. The whole valley of the 
Mississippi also yields it in abundance. 

7th. That the people of all parts of the United 
States are consumers of British manufactures ; for in 
spite of national asperities, they adopt the habits, 
tastes, fashions, and dress of their English ancestors. 
This, I think, is a natural feeling in the human 
breast, for I never yet knew a son who was offended by 
being told that he resembled his parent. The imported 
grain then would be paid for in the products of British 
industry. 

8th. That the rapidly increasing population and 
limited superficial surface of the British Isles, will 
speedily render a foreign supply of grain necessary even 
in the most productive seasons — and consequently a 
reduction of duties must ensue ; it is therefore advan- 
tageous to the agricultural interests, as land is. becom- 
ing so valuable, to reserve as much of the soil of Eng- 
land as possible for the cultivation of wheat and more 
Taluable products ; and nothing will tend to promote 
this object more than the introduction of a copious sup- 
ply of eheaper farinaceous food for the poor and labour- 
ing classes. 



INDIAN CORN. 25 

In closing the historical part of this memoir, it may 
not be uninteresting to allude to another countrymen 
of ours, -Elihu Burritt, commonly called " The Learned 
Blacksmith," who is at present engaged in making a 
pedestrian tour in various parts of Europe, and giving 
the result of his observations in the " Christian 
Citizen," from which we make the following extract : — • 

I have just got out " An Olive Leaf, from the House- 
wives of America, to the Housewives of Groat Britain 
and Ireland, or Recipes for making Various Articles of 
Food, of Indian Corn Meal," containing all the recipes 
I received before leaving home from our kind female 
friends in different parts of the Union — heaven bless 
them! I have had 2,000 of these Olive Leaves struck 
off, and intendsd, in the first place, to send a copy to 
every newspaper in the realm. I shall have a thou- 
sand, all of which 1 shall put into the hands of those 
I meet on the road. I have resolved to make it a con- 
dition upon which only I consent to be any man's 
guest, that his wife shall serve up a johnny-cake for 
breakfast, or an Indian pudding for dinner. I was in- 
vited yesterday to a tea party which comes off to-night, 
where about thirty persons are to be present. I ac- 
cepted the invitation with the johnny-cake clause, 
which was readily agreed to by all parties. So to-night 
the virtues of corn meal will be tested by some of the 
best livers in B-irmingham. 

Mythology. — The Indians of Peru and the adjacent 
country, who existed before the empire of the Ineas 
began, were at best but tamed animals, and often they 
were more brutish than the beasts of the field. They 
possessed no right of property, no fixed laws, no religion, 
nor government ; neither did they plough, sow, or till 
the earth, nor did they understand the art of weaving 
cotton or wool ; but dwelt together in small hordes as 
they happened to meet in caves or holes in the rocks 
and mountains, subsisting on grass, herbs and roots, 
wild fruits, and the flesh of man, with no other cloth- 
ing than the leaves and bark of trees, and the. skins of 
beasts In short, they were altogether savage. 

3 



26 MEMOIR ON 

As ever lias been the case with most of the primitive 
tribos of the huniau race, these Indians derived their 
orio-inal boino-from divers objects, animate or inanimate, 
of which they entertained respect, admiration, or awe. 
Some who lived near a great lake which supplied them 
with a store of fish, called that the parent whence they 
emerged ; some esteemed the mighty Andes as their 
prime mother, who, from her deep caveams, first gave 
them birth ; and others fancied themselves to be the 
descendants of the great bird, condor, in token of 
which, on days of solemnity and festival, they wore its 
wines fastened to their arms. 

Every nation, province, tribe, and house among them, 
had its particular idol. For their opinion was, that 
one god would have enough to do, to take care of its own 
province, or family, and that its power was so limited, 
that it could have no virtue or extent within the juris- 
diction of another. Some adored whatever they saw in 
which an excellence could be observed, whether good or 
bad. The tiger, the jaguar, and the bear, they wor- 
shipped for their ferocity, and with such submission 
and humility, that they would not fly from them in 
time of danger, but off"ered themselves to be devoured. 
The fox and the monkey, they adored for their craft ; 
the stag for his swiftness ; the hawk, for agility and 
courage ; the eagle, for acuteness of sight ; while other 
nations were more considerate in the choice of their 
deities, and worshipped nothing except what aiforded 
them benefit or advantage. As fountains and cool 
springs, which furnished them with drink ; rivers, that 
watered their pastures ; the earth, which they called 
their mother, because it yielded them food ; the air, be- 
cause it gave them breath and life ; and fire, because it 
warmed them, and cooked their food. Some, also, made 
choice of sheep, cattle, or corn, and everything around 
them, that served most for nourishment, as a god, and 
worthy of divine honour. The inhabitants near the 
coast, made the sea their god, the name of which, 
interpreted in their language, signifies the ^^ Mothei 
Sea." The whale they deified on account of its pro- 



INDIAN C?3>RN. ' 27 

(iigious siz3. In the Province of Puerto Viejo, they 
had a high veneration for the emerald ; and near the 
Cordillera, they worshipped that mountain for its stu- 
pendous height. 

The sacrifices which they made to these deities were 
often as barbarous as the gods were senseless ; for, 
besides beasts, fruits, and corn, they sacrificed and 
devoured alive, men and women of all ages, whom they 
had taken in war. But other Indians less cruel, and 
more mild in their character, though they mingled blood 
with these rites, never took away life, but drew it from 
the veins of an arm, a leg, or the nostrils, according to 
the nature or solemnity of the sacrifice required. 
Others offered sheep and lambs, conies, partridges, and 
various kinds of fowl, herbs, fruits, and maize, so much 
esteemed among them, according to the deity they 
adored. 

These people, living and dying in the manner above 
described, were at length reclaimed by Inca Manco 
Capac, who, probably, was some Indian of a more 
elevated understanding and prudence than ordinary, 
and who, by carrying a refined manner of deportment 
toward them, had persuaded them that he and his wife, 
Mama Osllo liauco, proceeded from the sun, and were 
come from heaven ; and that his Father, Pachacamac 
(the Soul of the universe, or the Sustainer of all things), 
had sent them to instruct and bestow benefits upon the 
rest of mankind. Manco Capac was the founder of the 
Incas^ who were the native kings of Peru, and who, 
according to tradition, reigned in a direct lineage, until 
they were conquered by the Spaniards, for the space of 
four hundred years. The origin of these kings, the 
majesty and greatness of their empire, their conquests 
and policies in government, both in peace and in war, 
together with the laws they instituted for the good and 
benefit of their subjects, have been recorded by one of 
their ovrn descendants on the maternal side, Garcilasso 
de la Vega, surnamed the Inca. Concerning the origin 
of these kings, he says, that, when he was about seven- 
teen years of age, being one day preser.t with his 



28 MEMOIB ON 

kindred in tLi imperial cityof Cuzco, who were discours- 
ing of their ancestors, it came into his mind to ask the 
most elderly person amongst them, by iiitoirupting him 
in his discourse, the following questions : — '• Inca and 

* my uncle," said I, " How is it possible, since you 
' have no writings, that you ha^e been able to preserve 

* the memory of things past, and the origin of our 
' kings ? I observe that the Spaniards and their 

* kindred nations have their sacred and profane his- 
^ tories, whereby they learn the time that their own 

* kings, and the princes of other countries began their 
' reigns ; when and how empires were changed and 
' transferred ; nay, so far they go, as to tell n.s how 
^ many thousand years are past since God created the 
^ heavens and the earth ; all of which, and much 
' more, they have learned from their books ; but as to 

* yourselves — In what manner can you retain the 
' memory of your ancestors, or be informed of the 
' origin of the Incas ? As, for instance, who was the 

* first of them, or what was his name r Of what 
' lineage, or in what manner did he begin his reign ? 

* What nations did he conquer, and when did he give 

* a being to this great empire, and with what exploits 
' did our ancestors achieve their greatness ? 

" The Inca was much pleased to hear me make these 
' inquiries, because he took great delight in recounting 
^ these matters, and turning to me, said, ' Cousin, I 
most willingly comply with your request ; for it con- 
cerns you to hear them, and keep them in your heart 
Remember, then, that in ages past, all this region or 
country, you see around us, was nothing but moun- 
tains and wild forests, and the people in those times 
were like so many brutes, without any religion or 
government, with no understanding of property, or a 
single enjoyment of them ; neither did they sow, 
plough, nor clothe themselves, because they had no 
idea of tilling the earth, and knew not the art of 
weaving either cotton or wool. They dwelt two by 
two, or three and three together, as they chanced to 
meet, in caves, or holes in the rocks and mo^intains. 



IXDIAN CORN. 29 

Their food was herbs or grass, roc .s of trees, wild 
fruits, and human flesh ; and all the covering they 
had, consisted of the leaves or bark of trees, and the 
skins of beasts. 

* And now, I pray that you listen with due atten- 
tion, for I would not be troubled to repeat what J 
am to say. Our Father, the Sun, beholding these 
Indians as they existed in the state that I have just 
related, took compassion on them, and sent a son and 
a daughter of his own from heaven to earth, to in- 
struct our people in his knowledge, so that they 
might worship and adore him, and esteem him as their 
God, giving them laws and precepts, unto which 
they might conform their lives like men of reason 
and refinement of manners, that they might live 
in houses and society, learn to till the earth, culti- 
vate trees, plants, and corn, feed their flocks, and 
enjoy them as rational men, and not as brutes. 
With these orders and instructions, our Father, the 
Sun, placed his two children by the Lake Titicaca, 
giving them liberty to go which way they pleased, 
and that, in what place soever they stopped to eat, or 
sleep, they should strike a little wedge of gold into 
the ground, which was about half a yard long, and 
two fingers thick, and where, with one stroke this 
wedge should sink into the earth, there should be the 
place of their abode, and the court unto which all 
people should come. Lastly, he ordered that when 
they should have subjected these people to the rules 
of obedience, they should maintain them with reason, 
justice, piety, clemency, and gentleness, performing 
all the good offices of indulgent parents towards the 
children they love ; and that in imitation of him, 
and by his example who doeth good to all the world, 
by affording them light to perform their work, 
and the actions of life ; warming them when they 
are cold ; making their pastures and their seeds to 
grow, their trees to fructify, and their flocks to in- 
crease ; and watering their lands with timely dews. 
And in order to manifest hi earthly care, he said 



30 MEMOIR ON 

' every daj I take a turn around the wcild to see and 
"• discover the wants and necessities of all things, in 
order that, as their true fomenter and parent, I may 
apply myself to their succour and redress. Thus, 
after my example, and as my children, sent upon 
the earth, I would have you imitate me, and to instil 
such doctrine into this people as may convert them 
from beasts unto men. And henceforth I constitute 
and ordain you king and queen over this nation, 
that by your instructions, reason, and government, 
they may be preserved. After our Father, the Sun, 
had thus declared his pleasure to these, his two 
children, he dispatched them from him ; and, in 
taking their journey northward from Titicaca, at 
every place where they came to repose, they tried to 
strike their wedge into the ground, but to no effect ; 
but, at length they arrived at a little inn or place of 
rest, in the valley of Cuzco, where they again struck 
their wedge of gold into the earth, which received it 
with the greatest ease, and which sucked it in, and 
they saw it no more. Then, said the Inca to his 
sister and wife — in this valley, our Father, the Sun, 
hath commanded that we should stay, and make our 
abode, and in so doing we shall obey his will ; in 
pursuance whereof, it is necessary that we now 
separate from each other, and take different ways 
that we may assemble and draw the people together 
in such manner as we may be able to preach and 
propagate the doctrine among them, which has been 
committed to us. Our Inca, accordingly, took his 
way northward, and his wife to the southward, and 
to all the men and women, whom they met in the 
wild forests and uncultivated places, they declared to 
them that their Father, the Sun, had sent them to be 
teachers and benefactors, and to deliver them from 
the savage life they led to another, more agree- 
able to reason, justice, an i humanity. And in fur- 
ther pursuance of the commandg of our Father, the 
Sun, they had come to gather these people from the 
mountains and rude places, to more convenient 



IN'DtAN CORN. 



3] 



liabitatioas, whore they might live in human society, 

* and subsist upon such food as was appropriated to man, 
' and not to baasts. These, and similar declarations 
' were announced to such savages as they met in the 
' mountains and deserts, who, in beholding the grace 
' of their countenances, the jewels, and the gay attire 

* with which these two persons were adorned, and in 
' listonino- to the gentleness and sweetness of their 
< words, acknowledged them to be the true Children of 
' the Sun, and such as were appointed to cause^ their 
' people to assemble into societies, and to administer 
' such kinds of food as were wholesome, ana adapted 

* to human sustenance. They were struck with such 
« admiration at the sight of their figure and person, 
^ and allured with the promises they made them, that 
' they gave entire credence to their words, obeyed 
' them a? their princes, and adored them as superior 
'beings. And these poor wretches, relating these 
' sayings one to another, the fame so increased, that 

* great" numbers, both men and women, flocked to- 
'gether, and were willing to follow to what place 

soever they should guide them. 

' Thus, great multitudes of people being assembled 
ton-ether, the princes commanded that provision 
should be made of such fruits as the earth produced 

* for their sustenance, lest they should be scattered 

* abroad again in small numbers, to gain their food. 
' Our Inca taught some of his subjects those labours, 

< which appertain unto men, as to build houses, plough, 

< sow the land with maize and divers sort of seeds, 
Uhat were useful or fit for food ; to which end hem- 
^^structcd them how to make ploughs and other im- 
« plements necessary for the purpose ; he showed them 
' also how to make aqueducts and reservoirs for hold- 
' ing water, and various other arts tending to the more 
« commodious well-being of human life. He employed 
<■ others to gather and tame the llamas and more gentle 
' sorts of cattle into flocks, which ran dispersed and 
' wild through the mountains and woods, that garments 
* might be made of their wool, and shoe.s of th:r 



82 MEMOIR ON 

* skins. On the other hand, Coya Mama Oello in- 

* structed the women the art of spinning and weaving 
^ both cotton and wool, to make garments for their 
' husbands, their children, and themselves, with various 
' other offices appertaining to a house. In short, 
' nothing was omitted that would conduce to human 
' welfare, which she did not teach her women, and the 
' Inca his men. 

' Being reduced in this manner, these Indians looked 

* on themselves as much bettered in their condition ; 
' and with siornal acknowledcrments of the benefits 
' received, travelled with joy and satisfaction through 
' the . rocks and woods, to communicate the happy 
' tidings of the Children of the Sun, who, for the com- 
' mon good of all, appeared on the earth, repeating 

* the benefits they had received, and showing them 
' their new habiliments, and diet, and relating to 
' them that they lived in houses and in political 
' society. This relation induced these wild people to 
' mingle with their civilized brethren, in order to learn 
' and obey ; and thus, one calling and inviting 
' the other, the fame spread far and near, and their 

* number increased to such a degree, that in six or 

* seven years, the Inca had composed an army sufficient 

* for war ; and havins; tausrht them how to make bows 

* and arrows, lances, and such other weapons as we 

* use to this day, they were not only capable of defend- 
' ing, but also to repulse an enemy, and to compel 
' those by force, who led a bestial life, to live in 
' human society. 

^ These were our first Incas and kings in the earlis^r 
' ages of our empire, from whom the succeding princes, 
' and we ourselves, are descended ; but how many 

* years it may be since our Father, the Sun, sent his 
' ofi'spring amongst us, I am not able precisely to say, 

* but I imagine that it may be about four hundred 
' years. 

' And thus having satisfied the request you made to 
' me, at length, dear cousin, allow me to close by tell- 
' ing you, that in the course of my narrative, in order 



rNDIAN CORN. 33 

that I might not »clia3 you to sa i::ess, I abstained 
from venting tea s from my eyes, which, notwith- 
standing, drop ic blood on my heart, caused by that 
inward grief 1 feel, to see our Incas, and their empire 
ruined and destroyed." ' 
To this legend, many others of ancient date might 
be added, one of which, is, that the rays of the sun, 
aft6r the universal deluge, first fell on the island in 
Lake Titicaca, before they appeared in any other place, 
and gave a sign and promise that from that spot the 
first doctrines of the light of knowledge should eminate, 
which promise was afterwards accomplished by those 
kings, who preceded them, and taught the world to 
throw off their turpitude, and live according to the dic- 
tates of nature and of reason. By advantage of these, 
and other similar inventions, it was not difficult for the 
Incas to persuade the rest of the Indians, that they 
actually descended from the sun, and to confirm their 
belief by the manifold benefits and advantages which 
their doctrine and religion brouo-ht with them. On 
the assurance of these two fables, it is said, the Incas 
and all their subjects did really esteem this island to 
be a sacred and holy piece of ground, upon which, with 
that opinion, they erected a rich temple, all plated 
with gold, to be dedicated to their Father, the Sun ; 
where all the Indians of the provinces, subject to the In- 
cas, generally assembled once a year to offer gold, silver, 
and precious, stones, in thankful acknowledgments of 
the great blessings they had received. And so immense 
was the quantity of gold and silver, which was amassed 
in that island, besides what was cast and wrought into 
utensils, for the service of the temple, that the report 
of it made by the Incas, is incredible, and is more to be 
admired than believed. Bias Valera, a Spanish histo- 
rian, in speaking -of the riches of this temple, says, 
that after all the vessels and ornaments were supplied, 
he was told by the Indians of Copa-Cabano, that there 
was such a superfluity of gold and silver, after all was 
finished, that another such temple might hare been 
erected without the aid of any other materials ! And 



34 .EEMCIR ON 

that, so soon as the Indians had news of the invasion 
of the Spaniards, and were informed that their object 
was to despoil them of their treasures, they demolished 
their temple, and threw all the fragments and the im- 
mense wealth appertaining thereto, into the great 
lake. 

Those Incas, besides the riches they bestowed, and 
the encouragement they gave for the adornment of this 
temple, did much to improve the sterile laud of this 
isle, so as to render it more fertile, and fit to produce 
fruit ; and, in gratitude to the place, on which they 
believed their ancestors to have descended from heaven, 
they ennobled it by bringing it into the highest state 
of fertility and the best of husbandry. To this end 
they levelled and cleared it of rocks and stones, made 
gardens and covered them over with good earth and 
manure brought from afar, and thereby made the 
ground capable of producing maize, which, by reason 
of its elevation and its consequent coldness of climate, 
would not grow in the country adjacent. This grain, 
with flax and other seeds, they sowed in the gardens 
they had made, which yielded good increase, the fruits 
of which they sent as sacred presents to the temple of 
the sun, and to the select virgins, at Cuzco, with orders 
to distribute them in all other sacred places throughout 
the dominions. One year they sent presents to Cuzco, 
the next to another place, and the third year some- 
where else, which were held in high esteem, as sacred 
relics, sowing some in the gardens belonging to the 
temples, and other public houses, and others they 
divided among the people. A portion of the grain they 
cast into the public granaries, and those of the sun 
and of the king, believing that some divine virtue was 
contained in it, and that it would bless and increase 
the corn with which it was mixed, preserve it from cor- 
ruption, and render it more wholesome for human 
sustenance ; and that Indian who was so happy as to 
be able to get but one grain of this maize, to throw into 
his heap, was possessed with the belief that he should 
never be in want for bread in the course of his life. 



INDIAN CORN. 35 

Durins the high feast, Capacrayni^ held in the first 
month, Raymi^ agre3ing with our December, no stran- 
ger was suffered to lodge in Cazco, to which they 
ao-ain all assembled as soon as the festival was over, to 
receive cakes made of maize and the warm blood of a 
white alpaca, \>j ih.2 Mamacunas^ (select virgins,) and 
distributed by certain priests, who, in carrying them 
about in dishes of gold, gave each of the Indians one, 
saying as they delivered it, ''If you do not reverence 
the sun and Inca, this food will bear witness 
against you to your ruin ; but if you worship them, 
then their bodies, by this pledge, will be united to 
yours." After which, those that had eaten of the 
cakes, promised obedience, and thanked the sun and 
Inca for their food. 

In the beginning of the month Hatuncazqui, which 
corresponds to our May, the Peruvians gathered 
their maize and kept the feast Aymorai. They re- 
turned home, singing from the fields, carrying with 
them a large heap of maize, which they called Perua, 
wrapping it up in rich garments. They continued their 
ceremonies for three nights, imploring the perua to 
preserve their harvest of maize from any damage that 
mifht chance to befall it, and also to cause that to grow 
prosperously which they should next plant. Lastly, 
their sorcerers consulted their gods whether the perua 
could last till the next year; and if they did not 
answer in the affirmative, they carried it into the 
fields and burned, or parched it with the view of 
making a new perua, which they bore to their gra- 
naries in great triumph, and mingled it with other corn. 

The eorn-plant, or its fruit, also entered into the 
forms, the ceremonies, and the mythology of many 
other tribes, which, from the limited length of this 
memoir, and the want of accurate information on the 
subject, are necessarily omitted. The following alle- 
gory, however, which was related to Mr. Schoolcraft 
by the Odjibwas, will be read with interest by all 
who have a fondness for this branch of literature :— 
A young man went out into the woods to fast, at that 
period of life when youth is exchanged for manhood. 



3b MIMOIR ON 

He built a lodge of boughs in a secludod place, and 
painted his face of a sombre hue. By day he amused 
himself in walking about, looking at the various shrubs 
and wild plants, and at night he lay down in his bower, 
which, being open, he could look up into the sky. He 
sought a gift from the Master of Life, and he hoped 
it would be something to benefit his race. On the third 
day he became too weak to leave the lodge, and as he lay 
gazing upwards he saw a spirit come down in the shape 
of a beautiful young man, dressed in green, and having 
green plumes on his head, who told him to arise and 
wrestle with him, as this was the only way in which he 
could obtain his wishes. He did so, and found his 
strength renewed by the effort. This visit and the 
trial of wrestling were repeated for four days, the youth 
feeling at each trial, that, although his bodily strength 
declined, a moral and supernatural energy was im- 
parted, which promised him the final victory. On the 
third day his celestial visitor spoke to him. " To- 
morrow," said he, " will be the seventh day of your fast, 
and the last time I shall wrestle with you. You will 
triumph over me, and gain your wishes. As soon as 
you have thrown me down, strip off my clothes, and 
bury me in the spot, in soft fresh earth. When you 
have done this, leave me, but come occasionally to 
visit the place, to keep the weeds from growing. 
Once or twice cover me with fresh earth." He then 
departed, but returned the next day, and, as he had 
predicted, was thrown down. The young man punc- 
tually obeyed his instructions, in every particular, and 
soon had the pleasure cf seeing the green plumes of his 
sky visitor, shooting up through the ground. He 
carefully weeded the eai-th, and kept it fresh and soft, 
and in due time was gratified by beholding the matured 
plant, bending with its yellow fruit, and gracefully 
waving its green leaves and yellow tasseb in the wind. 
He then invited his parents to the spot, to behold the 
new plant. " It is mondamin," replied his father "it 
is the spirit's grain." They immediately prepared a 
feAst, and invited their friends to partake cf it, and 
tnis is the oiig-in of Indian corn. 



INTiAN CORN. 37 

Proper. les and Uses. — There is no species of the 
Cerealia, which manifests itself under such varied forms, 
sizes, colours, and chemical ingredients, as maize. 
While some persons have estimated it in value, equal, if 
not superior, to all other kinds of grain, others, on the 
contrary, have placed it in the lowest station in the 
group to which it belongs. It has been contended bj 
some that it contains no gluten, and little, if any, ready- 
formed saccharine matter, and hence, could possess but 
a very small nutritive power, while others have observed 
that domestic animals, which are fed on maize, very 
speedily become fat, with their flesh, at the same time, 
remarkably firm ; that horses, which consume it, are 
enabled to perform their full portion of labour, are 
exceedingly hardy, and require but little oare ; and 
that the inhabitants of the countries where it forms a 
large share of their food, are, for the most part, strong, 
healthy, and long-lived. The investigations of ve.getable 
chemistry, however, have more recently revealed to us 
many important and interesting facts on these points, yet 
our knowledge on the subject is far from being complete. 

According to Marabelli's analysis of Zea mays, 
made twenty or thirty years ago, it contains a saccha- 
rine matter of different degrees of purity, from which 
alcohol, the oxalic and acetous acids may be obtain- 
ed ; a vegetable amylaceous substance ; a glutinous 
substance ; muriate and nitrate sf magnesia ; carbonates 
of potash, lime, and of magnesia ; and iron. 

According to the analysis of M. Payen, maiz^ con- 
sists of the following ingredients. One hundred parts 
by weight yielded 

Starch, 28.4 

Nitrogenized matter, ----- 4,8 

Fatty matter, (oil,) ------ 35.6 

Colouring matter, ------ 0.2 

Cellular tissue, ------- 20.0 

Dextrine, -------- 2.0 

Various salts, -------- 7.2 

Loss, ---------- 1.8 

100.0 



38 ME.V.OIR ON 

Tho propurtioQ oi oil la evidently overrated ia this 
analysis, and the orrOi- ii attribut • i by Dr. Jackson to 
the solubility of th.3zemeor glut- a of the corn in ethor, 
which Pajen used to dissolve :he oil. The gluteu 
being t^^ksn up by this process, .v.js mistak'H fur oil, 
and credited in the analysis as such, when it should 
have been put under tho head of nitrogenized matter. 
It is not surprising, he remarks that M. Dumas, in 
quoting this analysis, should observe that " individuals 
who eat corn for some time, present symptoms of an 
accumulation of fat in their tissue, which will not ap- 
pear astonishing:, when we consider that a bushel of 
corn would yield a quart (litre) of oil !" If this doc- 
trine were true, those Americans, who derive a great 
part of their subsistence from Indian corn, would be 
an excessively fat people. 

According to the analysis recently made in England 
by Professor Playfair, some specimens of corn of 
American growth, yielded, in one hundred parts by 
weight, the following proportions : — 

Proteine, -------- 7 

Fatty matter, ------ 5 

Starch, ---------76 

Water, 12 



100 



By this analysis it would seem that maize contains 
less proteine or nutritive matter, than wheat, oats, or 
barley, but more than either rice or potatoes. In fact, 
it contains about three and a half times the quantity 
of nutritive matter that is found in potatoes, and a 
much larger proportion of starch, and less water. It 
also contains more fatty matter than any of these pro- 
ducts, which is a very important consideration where the 
mare fattening of animals is taken into account. Hence, 
as an article of food, either for man or animals, it is 
superior to potatoes and rics, but inferior to wheat, 
oats, or barley. It is relished by all animals that 
are not exclusively carnivorous, and certai»nly ia highly 
nutritious. 



INDIAN CORN. 39 

According to the ros3arclies of Dv. . harles T. Jack- 
BOQ, of Boston, who stdud.s pieiainont as a chemist, 
Indian coni, in ganoral, is composed of variable propor- 
tions of starch, dextrine, £i;iim or mucihigre, suo-ar, 
gluten, oil, the phosphates of lime and magnesia, with 
a little phosphoric a-^-i 1 silica, potash, and oxide of 
iron. Some varieties, iiowever, are nearly or quite 
destitute of gluten, oil, or the salts of iron. 

Among the curious results of Dr. Jackson's experi- 
ments, he proved that the relative proportions of phos- 
phates in grain, depend on the assimilating power of 
each species, or variety ; for an ear of corn having been 
selected, which had on it two-diiferent kinds, namely, 
the Tuscarora and the sweet corn, more than double 
the amount of phosphates were obtained from the latter 
than from the former, notwithstanding: the kernels 
came from the same ear, grew side by side from the 
same sap, and were derived from the same soil. Hence 
it may be inferred that a crop of sweet corn will sooner 
exhaust a soil of its phosphates than any other variety, 
and if a soil be deficient in these materials, more must 
be added to produce it in perfection. Some interesting 
facts were also noticed by him in the variable propor- 
tions of phosphates in different varieties of the same 
species of several kinds of grain, and a greater prepon- 
derance of them was observed in Indan corn, than in 
the smaller grains, as barley, oats, wheat, &c. — a fact 
which seems to explain their peculiar properties as food 
for animals ; for the more highly phosphatic grains 
appear to be more likely to surcharge the system of 
adult animals with bony matter, often producing con- 
cretions of phosphate of lime, like those resulting 
from gout. It is conjectured that the stiffness of the 
joints and lameness of the feet, common in horses, 
which have been fed to freely with maize, is caused by 
the preponderance of the phosphates. Granting this 
to be true, young animals cannot fail to derive more 
osseous matter tVom corn than from any other kind of 
grain. 

The horny or flinty portions of corn, when viewed in 



40 MIMOIR ON 

thin sections under a good microscope, will be lound 
to consist of a great number of six-sided cells, filled 
with a fixed oil, which has been successfully employed 
for the purposes of illumination. It is stated that a 
distillery has been established in the vicinity of Lake - 
Ontario, where this oil is extracted, at the rate of six- 
teen gallons from one hundred bushels of corn, leaving 
the remaining portion of the corn more valuable and 
in better condition for distillation than before the oil is 
extracted. On this oil depends the 

POPPING QUALITIES OF CORN. 

For, when the kernels are heated to a temperature suf- 
ficiently high to decompose the oil, a sudden explosion 
takes place, and every cell is ruptured by the expansion 
of gaseous matters arising from the decomposition of 
the oil, and the formation of carburetted hydrogen gas, 
such as is sometimes used in lighting large cities, the 
grain being completely evoluted and folded back, or 
turned inside out. This property is remarkably strong 
in the pop corn, and is common, in a greater or less 
degree, in all kinds of corn that abound in oil ; but those 
varieties destitute of a horny covering, as the Tuscarora, 
and white flour-corn, will not pop under any circum- 
stances whatever. 

This change in corn is one of considerable im- 
portance, so far as regards facility of digestion ; for, 
after the decomposition or extraction of this oil, it is 
more readily digested by man, though less fattening to 
poultry, cattle, swine, &c. 

One important use of the oil in corn is undoubtedly 
to prevent the rapid decomposition of the kernels, 
when sown in the soil, and to retain a portion of 
pabulum or food, until needed by the young plant, and 
is always the last portion of the grain taken up. It 
also serves to keep meal from souring, as it has been 
obser'^ed that a flint-corn meal will keep sweet for 
years, even when put up in large quantities, without 
being kiln-dried ; while the meal of Tus-carora corn 
will become sour in a very short time. 



INDIAN CORN. 41 

The colours of Indian corn usually depend on that 
of the epidermis or hull, and sometimes on that-of the 
oil. If the epidermis be transparent, the colour may 
depend either upon the oil, or the combined particles 
of which the corn is composed ; but if the hull be 
opaque, the grain will present the same colour. For 
example, the yellow colour of the golden Sioux is 
derived from the yellow colour of the oil ; and the 
Rhode Island white flint-corn on the colourless par- 
ticles of its starch and oil, which are distinctly seen 
through its transparent hull ; but red and blue 
corn owe their lively hues to the colours of their 
epidermis, and not to the oil. 

The proportions of oil in corn, as far as it has been 
examined, varies from an entire absence to eleven per 
cent., according to the varieties employed. 

When corn is hulled by means of potash ley, a por- 
tion of the oil is converted into soap, and the epidermis 
becomes detached. The caustic alkali also liberates 
ammonia from the mucilage around the germ. 

Oily corn makes a dry kind of bread, and is not suf- 
ficiently adhesive to rise well without an admixture of 
rye, or other flour. 

The oil of corn is easily convertible into animal fat 
by a slight change of composition, and consequently 
serves an excellent purpose for fattening poultry, cattle, 
and swine. Starch, also, is changed into fat as well as 
the carbonaceous substances of animals, and during its 
slow combustion in the circulation, gives out a portion 
of the heat of animal bodies; while, in its altered 
state, it goes to form a part of the living frame. Dex- 
trine and sugar act in a similar manner, as a compound 
of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. 

From the phosphates of grain, the substance of bone 
and the saline matters of the brain, nerves, and other 
solid and fluid parts of the body, are, in a great 
measure, derived. 

The salts of iron go to the blood, and these consti- 
tute an essential portion of it, whereby it is enabled, 
by successive alterations of its degree of oxidation 



42 MEMOIR ON 

during the circulation througli the lungs, arteries, ex- 
treme vessels and veins, to convey oxygen to every 
part of the body. 

By soaking Indian corn, after it has been cut open, 
in a watery solution of sulphate of copper, (blue vitriol,) 
the result will give a decisive proof of the presence of 
phosphoric acid. The *' chits," or parts containing the 
germs, will be changed to a bluish-green, beautifully 
defining the limits of the phosphates of lime and of 
magnesia contained in the grain. 

By soaking a kernel of corn split open longitudinally 
and thrown into a solution of sulphydrate of ammonia, 
the chit is soon changed to a dark olive-colour, which 
arises from the change of the salts of iron into a sul- 
phuret of that metal. 

By cutting open, in a similar manner, a kernel of 
maize, or any other kind of grain, and dropping upon 
it a small quantity of the tincture of iodine, a portion 
of its bulk will be immediately changed to an intense 
blue, indicating the presence of starch, with here and 
there a deep port-wine-coloured speck, which will define 
the parts composed of dextrine. If the oil is extracted 
from the transparent part of the corn by alcohol, or 
ether, the tincture of iodine will indicate the presence 
of starch in that part of the grain associated with the 
gluten. 

By these means, we may readily cause any grain to 
define the extent and precise limits of each of its 
ingredients ; and by the eye, we can form a pretty cor- 
rect estimate of their relative proportions in different 
seeds.* 

The varieties of Indian corn are very numerous, ex- 
hibiting every grade of size, colour, and conformation 
between the shrubby reed that grows on the shores of 
Lake Superior, to the gigantic stalks of the Ohio val- 
ley, the tiny ears with flat, close-clinging grains of 
Canada, the brilliant, rounded, little pearl, or the 
bright-red grains and white cob of the eight-rowed 

♦ See Jackson's Report on the Geology and Mineralogy of New Hampshixei 
ptt. 255 e^. sea. 



INDIAN CORN. 43 

hsematite. to the swelling ears of the big "white, and 
yellow gourd-seed of the South. The principal varieties 
cultivated in the United States, which may be distin- 
guished by the number of rows of grains on the cob, 
and the colour, shape, or size of the kernels, may be 
classified and described as follows : — 

Yellow Corn. — The colours of the varieties coming 
under this head, as before observed, are dependent 
mainly on the shades of the oil, as seen through the 
transparent epidermis or hull. 

1. Golden Sioux or Northern Yellow. Flint- Corn^ 
derived from the Sioux Indians, in Canada, having a 
large cob, rather short as to length, with twelve rows 
of moderately-sized grains, abounding in oil, and is 
reorarded as one of the best varieties for fatteninf; 
animals, or for human food. By skilful tillage, 130 
bushels have been raised to an acre, weio-hino- 9,216 lbs. 
in the ear. When dry, 75 lbs. of ears gave a bushel 
when shelled. Several valuable hybrid varieties have 
been produced between the Sioux and the King Philip, 
the gourd-seed and the Sioux, &c. 

2. King Philip or Eight-rowed Yellow Corn ; so 
called after the celebrated chief of the Wampanoags, 
of that name, from which tribe the seed was originally 
obtained. The ears, which contain only eight rows, 
are longer, the cob smaller, and the strains larger than 
those of the golden Sioux, and it will yield about the 
same quantity of oil. It is a hardy plant, much 
esteemed in New En"2;land as a substantial article of 
food, where it has been cultivated from times anterior 
to the landing of the Pilgrims From this variety, a 
number of superb kinds have been obtained, among 
which, are a beautiful ton and twelve-rowed hybrid 
from the golden Sioux, and the well known Browne 
Corn, improved by my brother, Mr. John Browne, of 
Long Island, in Lake Winnipissiogee. The latter 
variety was produced by cultivating; selected ears for a 
succession of years, of the King Philip corn, with small 
but-ends, the .second ripe, in the field, and taken from 
stalks which bore more than two ears each The grains 



44 MEMOIR 



of this corn are ai'ge, the cob small, aud the ears 
usually from teu t( thirteen inches in l.jngth, with only 
eight rows. It ripens a little later than the golden 
Sioux, and is very prolific, the greatest crop, per acre, 
that has yet been raised, being 136 bushels, weighing, 
in the ear, 9,5^0 lbs., or 70 lbs. to the bushel, and 58 
lbs., when shelled. 

3. Canada Corn or Eight-rowed Yellow. — This corn, 
which is smaller, earlier, aud more solid than any of 
the preceding, contains more oil than any other variety, 
except t4ie rice corn, and the pop corn, properly so 
called. It is highly valued for fattening poultry, swine, 
&c., and is grown by many, in gardens, for early boiling 
or roasting, when green. Notwithstanding it is very 
prolific in ears, it is seldom planted in fields, except in 
regions where the larger kinds will not thrive. 

4. Dutton Corn, a variety first brought into notice, 
in 1818, by Mr. Salmon Button, of Cavendish, Ver- 
mont. The ears of corn from which it was originally 
selected, on an average, were from eight to twelve 
inches long, and contained from twelve to eighteen 
rows. The cob is larger, and sometimes grows tx) the 
length of fourteen or fifteen inches, but the grain is so 
compact upon it, that two bushels of sound ears have 
yielded five pecks of shelled corn, weighing 62 lbs. to the 
bushel. With proper management, an acre of ground 
will produce from 100 to 120 bushels. As it abounds 
in oil, gives a good yield, and ripens at least two weeks 
earlier than the Canada corn, it has long been a fa- 
vourite for culture at the North. 

5. Southern Big Yellow Corn. — The cob of this 
variety is thick and long, the grains much wider than 
deep, and where the rows unite with each other, their 
sides fall off almost to a point. This gives the ouside 
ends of the grain a circular form, which imparts to the 
ear an appearance somewhat resembling a fluted column. 
The grain contains less oil and more starch than the 
northern i^inty kinds, yet its outward texture is some- 
what solid, flinty, and firm. It comes rather late into 
maturity, affords an abuv.dant yield, and is much uped 



1 



INDIAN CORN. 45 

for fattening swine. Mixed Tvitli either of the white 
gourd-seed varieties the Yellow Gourd- Seed is produced, 
which is often mistaken for an original form. 

6. Sou (hern Small Yellow Corn. — The ears of this 
sort are more slender, as well as shorter, than the last 
named variety ; the grains are smaller, though of the 
same form, of a deeper yellow, more firm and flinty, and 
contain an abundance of oil, which renders them more 
valuable for the purposes of shipping, or for feeding to 
poultry and swine. Although it is less productive than 
the big yellow, it ripens earlier, and consequently is 
sooner out of the reach of the autumnal frosts. Some 
valuable hybrids have been produced between this and 
the big yellow, the Virginian white gourd-seed, and 
other large varieties. 

White Corn. — The varieties which constitute this 
division are exceedingly variable, both as regards their 
composition and size, as well as in their yield and times 
of coming to maturity. 

1. Rhode Island White Flint-Corn. — The grains of 
this variety are about the size and shape of those of the 
Tuscarora corn, but differ from them in containing an 
abundance of a transparent and colourless oil, which 
may easily be seen through their clear, pellucid hulls. 
The farinaceous parts of the grains are white, and ars 
the quantity of oil thoy contain is large, the flour is 
more substantial as an article of food, and less liable 
to ferment and become sour: In Rhode Island, where 
it produces an. abundant yield, it is a favourite grain, 
and stands in high repute. 

2. Southern Bin White Flint- Corn, having a laro-e 
thick cob, with twelve rows of kernels, much resem- 
bling, in shape and size, those of the big yellow, and 
like that variety, is less productive than the white 
Virginian gourd-seed. It contains more starch, and 
less oil than the northern flint-corn ; but is much 
softer and a better food for horses, though not so fat- 
tening to poultry and swine. When ground into meal, 
it is apt to become souc and consequently is unfit to be 



'i^ . MLMOIR ON 

shipped ill that state, unless previously prepared b^ 
bein(5 kiln-dri^d. From this variety originated the 
genuine White Flint-Corn, employed for making the 
excellent hommony, so much in use in the Middle and 
Southern States. 

3. Southern Little White Flint-Corn. — The kernels 
of this variety are considerably smaller than those of 
the preceding, and much resemble them in shape ; but 
they are more firm and solid, contain more oil, and 
consequently are more valuable for feeding poultry and 
swine, and for human food. Although the cob is smaller 
in proportion to the size of the ears, the J'ield, per acre, 
is less abundant, and hence it is but little grown. 

4. Dutton White Flint-Corn., a variety not diflfering 
materially from the yellow Dutton corn, except in the 
colour of its oil. 

5. Early Canadian ^Miite Flint-Corn., cultivated 
principally for early boiling or roasting, while green. 

6. Tascarora Corn., a variety obtained from the 
Tuscarora Indians, in the state of New York. The 
ears contain from twelve to sixteen rows of grains, 
which are nearly as deep as they are broad, of a 
whitish colour on the exterior, and composed entirely 
within, of pure white dextrine and starch, except the 
germs. As it contains neither gluten nor oil, it may 
profitably be employed in the manufacture of starch. 
It is much softer, and better food for horses than the 
flinty kinds, and if used before it becomes sour, it may 
be converted into an excellent bread. 

7. White Flour-Corn. — The cars of this variety con- 
tain twelve rows of rather thick, roundish grains, which 
are filled with a snowy white flour, composed principally 
of starch, but does not contain either gluten or oil. It 
is much used in some parts of the country, particularly 
in New Jersey, for grinding up with buck-wheat, mixed 
in proportions of four or five to one of corn, in order 
to improve the colour and other qualities of the buck- 
wheat flour. As it possesses similar properties as the 
preceding variety, it may be profitably employed for tho 
game purpo.^cs. 



INDIAN Luii.-. 4# 

8. Virginia White Gourd- Seed Com. — The ears of 
this corn, which are not very long, neither is the cob so 
large as those of the big white or yellow flint, contain 
from twenty-four to thirty-six rows of very long, nar- 
row grains of so soft and open a texture, that they will 
not bear transportation, by sea, unless they are pre- 
viously kiln-dried, or completely excluded from the 
moist air. These grains at their exterior ends are 
almost flat, and grow so closely together from the cob 
to the surface, that they produce a greater yield than 
any other variety, in proportiom to the size of the ear,?. 
They contain more starch and less gluten and oil than 
those of the flint kinds ; and from their softness, they 
serve as better food for horses, but are less nourishing 
to poultry and swine. The colour of this variety is 
always white, unless it has been crossed with other 
kinds, which may invariably be known by a small in- 
denture in the ends of the grains, when perfectly dried. 
The oily and glutinous parts of the Virginian gourd- 
seed always occur on the sides of its elongated grains, 
while the starch projects quite through to their sum- 
mits, and by contraction in drying, produces the pits 
or depressions peculiar to their ends. This variety is 
later ripe, though more productive than any other 
kind. Several valuable hybrids have been produced 
by its cross fecundation with the yellow and white flinty 
sorts, among which, are the Yellow Gourd- Seed, and 
the celebrated Burden and Baden varieties, the latter of 
which, has produced as many as ten ears to a stalk ! 

9. Early Sh^eet or Sugar Corn, sometimes called 
Pappoon Corn. — This variety was introduced into 
Massachusetts, in 1779, by Captain Richard Bagnal, 
of Plymouth, from the country bordering on t'he Sus- 
quehannah, on his return from the expedition against 
the tribes of the Six Nations, under the command of 
General Sullivan. There are two kinds of this corn, 
one with the cob red, and the other white. The ears 
are short, and usually contain eight rows, the grains of 
which, when mature, are of a light colour, and become 
shrivelled and appear as if they were unripe. It con- 



48 liVD'iAN cnPM- 

tains an unusually large proportion of the phosphate* 
and a considerable quantity of suo;ar and gum, though 
but little starch. It is extensively cultivated for culi- 
nary purposes, and serves as a delicious food, either 
green or dry. 

H^.MATJTE or Blood-red C«;rn, and Varieties op 
Different Shades. — The lively hues, peculiar to the 
red, blue, and purple corns, generally depend on 
the shades of the epidermis of the grains, and not the 
oil. The origin of these colours appears to be purely 
accidental, as white and yellow varieties have been 
planted at remote distances from anv other kind, and 
have produced kernels of a brilliant red. The different 
shades of colour in corn are supposed to be caused by 
different proportions of iron, or other metals, com- 
bined with oxygen and some acid principle, acted upon 
by the rays of light. 

1. Rice Corn, a variety with small ears, the grains 
of which are of various shades of colour, and often are 
of the size and shape of rice. It contains more oil and 
less starch than any other kind ; and when ground, its 
meal cannot be made into bread alono, but is dry like 
sand. From its oily nature and convenient size, this 
corn is peculiarly adapted for feeding fowls.* 

2. Pop or Parching Corn, sometimes called Valpa- 
raiso Corn (Zea ciiragua, of botanists.) The ears of 
this variety are small, the grains of various shades 
of colour, and contain, next to the rice corn, more oil 
and less starch, than any other kind. Its flavour is 
pleasant, when parched, for which purpose it is generally 
preferred. This variety is believed to be the Cara of 
the Incas of Peru, which, when parched, they call Canf 
thaj signifying a neighbourhood or street. 

* See Dr. Jackson's Report; pp. 258 et 259. 



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